About Chemistry, Environment, Waste Management and Green Life Inspirations

29 December 2009

Joint Research to Develop Cellulose Bio-Ethanol by 2015

Source :
http://www.japanfs.org/en/pages/028959.html

Six Japanese companies, including Nippon Oil Corp., Mitsubishi Heavy Industries, Ltd. and Toyota Motor Corp. announced on February 9, 2009, their plan to set up a research body to develop non-food cellulosic bioethanol. The association aims to establish a production-process technology that enables the production of 200,000 kiloliters of bioethanol per year at 40 yen per liter (about 44 US cents), thus competing with conventional crude oil, by 2015.

The other three firms are Kajima Corp., Sapporo Engineering Ltd. and Toray Industries Inc. These six companies will bring their own elemental technologies to the table and aim to jointly develop a production-process with The University of Tokyo, Hokkaido University and Japan's research organizations for agriculture, forestry and fisheries.

Japan's target under the Kyoto Protocol accomplishment plan is to shift 500,000 kl (crude oil equivalent) of its annual transportation fuel use to biofuel by fiscal 2010, and the oil industry has started introducing Bio Ethyl Tertial-Butyl Ether (Bio ETBE; synthesized from bioethanol and petroleum gas) on the market in an effort to meet this target. They started pilot sales of the product in 2007 and plan to begin full-scale introduction of 840,000 kl by 2010. 840,000 kl of Bio-ETBE is equivalent to approximately 360,000 kl of bioethanol.

Partnership of Six Corporations to Establish Bioethanol Research Association
http://www.eneos.co.jp/english/press/
e71_enpr_090209.html

Pros and Cons Ayu Azhari as Vice Regent Sukabumi



Liputan.com, Sukabumi: Pros and cons of Ayu Azhari's candidacy as a prospective candidate Vice Regent Sukabumi, West Java, expanded into the virtual world. On the social networking Facebook, for example, there are at least three accounts created. All three states declined, support, and declined versus supportive Ayu Azhari became Vice Regent Sukabumi 2010-2015 period.

From the observation SCTV at a internet cafe in Sukabumi, Tuesday (29/12), a group that refused to give their account name "Reject Ayu Azhari in the elections of Kenya". Until now the group has a membership of 1441 people. They add a variety of reasons for rejection, are the artist's background Ayu heat.

Meanwhile, a group that supports their account called "Support Ayu Azhari So Sukabumi Vice Regent 2010-2015". And so far the number of supporters to reach 210 members. Their reasons, Ayu could be expected to attract foreign investors due to foreign musician husband.

While the third group have entitled his account "Decline Versus Support Ayu Azhari became Vice Regent Sukabumi". Members of their new range of 44. A Ayu facebooker who refused to question the artist's ability to lead of Kenya, while not a native Ayu Sukabumi [read: Ayu Azhari Start Baliho Appear]. (ADO)

Back to Campus UGM

Suwarji, S.Pd

After more than a decade, the desire and enthusiasm to study again now raging again. Began on September 2, 2008 ago I attended the Masters in Systems Engineering (MST) Gadjah Mada University, Blue Campus Jogjakarta. I takes concentration processing program and municipal waste Treatment (TP2SLP).

Now I'm back again to the habitat that is long enough before I left. In 1986 I had been studying at the campus this blue, FMIPA precisely in the chemistry department. Remembering the past, not much physically different. Places penah become sweet memories, still remain as before. In terms of the situation, this time it was a walk in UGM narrower because the density of traffic flow.

The first days in college a lot of things that become a burden and challenge myself. Ranging from teaching and lecture schedule each collision, enough distance between the campus residence, must adapt to the new environment until the background to ilmuku discipline problems that have cost me responsibility later.

Of capital discipline, this time I have extra hard to keep pace,'s known for now I have to wrestle with a course-based engineering / enginering. Also I've got to sharpen myself in English.

Finally, I must be optimistic and full of self confidence. Is not the saying says that working without the conviction means half the job has failed?



































Teacher Certification

Please download bellow of Teacher Certification Documents:

  1. 1st Book Determination Participant in 2010 Guidelines
  2. A1 format in 2010 of Teacher Certification Participant
  3. Guidelines for the Implementation Task Teacher & Supervisor
  4. Kepmendiknas no 015_P_2009

Bioethanol from Ganyong


Gadjah Mada University (UGM) Research Team Develop Ganyong for Bio-ethanol production. For some people, rimpang ganyong (Canna edulis ker) is seen next to the eye so that less dibudidayakan. Rimpang that during the time known only as a distraction or food flour wheat flour substitute, also appeared to be used as alternative fuel for gasoline and kerosene.

This was after the UGM Research Team to develop bio-ethanol production from rimpang kana as one of the hydrogen fuel. "Interest from ganyong, this plant has not been much dibudidayakan and have great potential. Substance because it contains starch that is high enough, gulanya high enough, so have the potential for bio-ethanol.

Ganyong, the plant is easy to grow, tolerant of shade, have a potential high enough to developed, "said Dr. Kumala Dewi, M.Sc., a member of the research team in 25 exhibition Results Activities Research and UGM Hi-Link Project at the Sheraton Hotel Jakarta, Tuesday (4 / 3). UGM Research Team Develop Ganyong for Bio-ethanol Production Kumala Dewi addition, researchers are Prof.. Dra. Endang Sutariningsih Soetarto, M.Sc., Ph.D., both of them is a lecturer at the Faculty of Biology Gadjah Mada University, and Prof.. Dra. Wega Trisunaryanti, M.S., Ph.D. UGM's Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences.

In research, the bio-ethanol production is done in a way take advantage of dry starch in ganyong that reach 15-20 percent. Gynecology and starch hydrolysis dirombak the union to become a more simple process Liquefaction Saccharification. "With the union a more simple, the more glucose chain length, we cut into pieces so that it becomes a simple form of sugar. Next fermented leavened with the help of the usual used as yeast bread, "said women's birth Magelang, 8 April 1966 this.

Fermentation carried out during the next 3-4 days. Results include alcohol fermentation. However, the alcohol content will increase sharply during the fermentation process lasts up to 40 percent on the day keeempat. Results ago didestilasi fermentation process for the purification. Destilasi obtained from the first bio-ethanol with the 50-75 percent level. Next, re-done destilasi to obtain bio-ethanol with a value above 90 percent. "After that bio-ethanol can dimurnikan using molecular sieves," said Kumala Dewi more.

From this research, the quality level of bio-ethanol can be 98 percent meet the standards of fuel substitution. The maximum concentration recommended for mixing bio-ethanol with 98 percent gasoline, is 10 percent. Mentioned in the research, a kilogram (kg) ganyong can produce 120 cc of bio-ethanol. This means that 7-8 kg ganyong needed to produce one liter of bio-ethanol. In other words, the comparison of 8:1 is required to be able to produce bio-ethanol berkadar 75 percent of the comparison and 12:1 for bioethanol berkadar 97-98 percent. Kumala Dewi with other members of the team conducting the research since July 2008 after obtaining grants from the Hi-Link.

The idea to utilize ganyong obtaining 1993. At the time he conducted the research culture ganyong. "There I find that ganyong easy to grow and can be manipulated umbinya formation such that production of many more. But kan, utilization not know that much. In addition to food, because it contains starch and sugar so I have ideas to develop as bio-ethanol, "said the mother of three children. (PR UGM / Gusti Grehenson)

Bio Fuel from Nyamplung (Calophyllum Inophyllum L.)


Nyamplung (Calophyllum inophyllum L.) included in the clan who have Callophylum of knowledgeable enough in the world, namely Madagascar, East Africa, South and Southeast Asia, Pacific Islands, West Indies, and South America. In Indonesia, nyamplung spread from West Sumatra, Riau, Jambi, South Sumatra, Lampung, Java, West Kalimantan, Central Kalimantan, Sulawesi, Maluku and East Nusa Tenggara and Papua. To date, the potential natural nyamplung in Indonesia is not yet known exactly, Results of nappe area of Satellite Imagery Landsat7 ETM + in 2003 shows that the standing nyamplung all natural beaches in Indonesia to reach broad total 480,000 ha, and most (? 60%) are in the area forest.
Excess nyamplung as a raw material for biofuel is bijinya rendemen have a high, can reach 74%, and in the utilization does not compete with the interests of food. Some of the benefits of nyamplung reviewed the prospects of the development and utilization of others, are nyamplung plants grow and spread evenly naturally in Indonesia; easy regeneration and bear fruit throughout the year showed a high survival power of the environment; plants relatively easy budidayakan good plant type (monoculture) or forest mix (mixed-forest); match in a dry area, permudaan more natural, and bear fruit throughout the year, almost all the plants nyamplung berdayaguna and produce various products that have economic value; Nyamplung standing forest functions as a wind breaker (wind breaker) to agricultural crops and border coastal conservation and utilization of biofuel nyamplung can press the rate of forest trees as firewood; higher seed productivity than other types (Distance fence 5 tons / ha; palm 6 tons / ha; nyamplung 20 tons / ha).
Some of the benefits of biodiesel produced from oil nyamplung is rendemen nyamplung quite high compared to other types of plants (40-60% distance of the fence, Sawit 46-54%; Nyamplung and 40-73%), some parameters have met the quality standard of biodiesel Indonesia, oil seeds nyamplung have power fuel twice longer than oil. In the test to boil water, oil is 0.9 ml, while oil seed nyamplung only 0.4 ml; have a competitive advantage in the future, among other biodiesel nyamplung blender can be used as diesel fuel composition with a certain, even when used 100% appropriate processing technology, better quality of emissions from diesel fuel, can be used as a substitute for petroleum biokerosen.
Another benefit of the plant timber that is nyamplung including commercial timber, can be used for making boats, beam, pillar, floor boards and planks on the building and housing materials kontruksi light; getahnya can disadap to get the oil indicated that nutritious for the growth of HIV virus . Leaves the compound costatolide-A, saponin and hidrocyanic acid as the nutritious oles drugs for rheumatism pain, cosmetic ingredients for skin care, to heal wounds such as burns and wounds cut. Interest rates can be used as a mixture of oil to scent the hair. Bijinya after oil processed into useful to pelitur, oil and hair oil series, also nutritious for the cathartic and rheumatism. Nyamplung cultivation does not require a large investment.
The availability of land for potential development nyamplung plants also spread across the country. When all of the needs of nyamplung supplied biodiesel, biodiesel will be required as many as 720,000 kilo liters, equivalent to 5.1 million tons of seed nyamplung, with the assumption that 2.5 kg of seeds nyamplung akan produce 1 liter of oil nyamplung; thus akan area required to harvest crops nyamplung at least 254,000 hectares in the year 2025. With a similar pattern with the economic analysis of the study on development of Plantation Forest Rakyat (HTR), which states that in 1 ha 1 person required labor, plant nyamplung area of 254 thousand hectares will be able to absorb 254 thousand workers. With many potential advantages nyamplung plant is a plant that provides multifunctional and benefits to humans and the environment. Multifunctional and benefits include the potential nyamplung plants as forest and land rehabilitation, as an alternative biofuel, and to increase community empowerment (comdev). ant / kp
* * * * *

RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT CENTER FOREST PRODUCT (P3HH)
Has conducted RESEARCH DEVELOPMENT Biodiesel
FROM NYAMPLUNG seeds (Calophyllum inophyllum L.)
(Year 2005-2008)

History
R & D Center of forestry research has started producing biodiesel from the seeds of nyamplung intensively since 2005, and in 2008 obtained the results as follows:
  • Biodiesel from the seeds have been tested nyamplung nature fisiko-kimianya by R & D Center for Oil and Gas (2008) and all-is (as much as 17) have met national standards indonesia (SNI) for biodiesel, No: 04-7182-2006 .
  • Biodiesel has been tested nyamplung try on the road (road-rally test) three times, total distance reaches 370 km. From all trials conducted, the results obtained are satisfactory without some technical machinery. Vehicle speed is reached is 120 km / hour.
  • Tests with the engine performance of biodiesel fuel nyamplung still held by the Puspitek LIPI Serpong. Once completed, the result will be submitted for certification in the BSN (National Board of Certification).

SMA NEGERI 1 SIMO BOYOLALI

Welcome to SMA Negeri 1 Simo

Assalamu 'alaikum Wr. Wb.

Simo 1 Senior High School was established in 1983, occupies an area
area of 3 hectares. At the beginning, before its own building,
for 1 year at Junior High School have as Simo 1. Establishment of Senior High School is 1 Simo
was greeted with enthusiasm by people around the district including
Simo, Nogosari, Klego, Sambi, Karanggede, Ngemplak and even outside the community
Boyolali district as the district of Semarang, Sragen and Karanganyar. It is not surprising since these areas at that time not yet
Senior High School was his. Besides the presence of SMA Negeri 1 Simo increase the number
Simo schools in which at national level ranked 2nd in terms of
the number of schools at the district level. Simo so long ago have
predicate university town.

As growth from year to year SMA Negeri 1 Simo
achievement in both academic and non academic. From year to
in the larger number of alumni who made it into college
either country through the Great Mind / PBUD or UMPTN / SPMB.

In the academic field Senior High School more than 1 Simo 1
last decade has always ranked the 2nd or 3rd in terms of
semester test grades and national test scores.

This year began 2008/2009 SMA Negeri 1 Simo implement Independent School Programs category (SKM). Next we ask blessings from the various parties we may successfully carry out this program, so Insha Allah start the school year 2011/2012 we managed to achieve international school category (SBI), amien.

Finally, with the presence of the media / sites that may be very simple this can be an effective communication media and useful to us all.

Wassalamu 'alaikum Wr. Wb.

Suwarji, S.Pd

28 December 2009

Schedule of National Examination and POS UN 2009/2010

:: Announcement

According to the Minister of National Education Tax: 178/MPN/HK/2009 dated 03 Desember 2009 subject: National Exam (UN) Studies Year 2009/2010, it is hereby notified that the National Education Standards Agency (BSNP) will hold the UN in 2010 with schedule as follows:
1. National Exam Schedules SMA / MA, SMALB, and Vocational Studies Year 2009/2010

* UN Main (22 to 26 March 2010)
* UN Susulan (29 March to 5 April 2010)
* UN Deuteronomy (10 - May 14, 2010)

2. National Exam Schedules SMP / MTs and SMPLB Studies Year 2009/2010

* UN Main (29 March-1 April 2010)
* UN Susulan (5 to 8 April 2010)
* UN Deuteronomy (17 - May 20, 2010)

3. Schedule Lessons UASBN Year 2009/2010 SD / MI and SDLB

* UN Main (4 - May 6, 2010)
* UN Susulan (10 - May 12, 2010)

Subjects tested the same as last year except for religious programs for the MA.
Passing the same criteria as last year.
UN students at the school following their providers - each with a random control system and a re-examination.

For the lattice - the lattice National Examination can be found in:

Regulation of Minister No. 74 Year 2009

About the School Final Examination nationally standardized (UASBN) Elementary School / Madrasah Ibtidaiyah / Extraordinary Elementary School (SD / MI / SDLB) Studies Year 2009/2010

Regulation of Minister No. 75 Year 2009

About the National Examination Secondary School / Islamic junior High Schools (SMP / MTs), Junior High School Extraordinary (SMPLB), High School / Madrasah Aliyah (SMA / MA), High School Extraordinary (SMALB), and Vocational High School ( SMK) Studies Year 2009/2010

Regulation of Minister No. 84 Year 2009
Amendment of the Minister of National Education No. 75 Year 2009 About the National Examination Secondary School / Islamic junior High Schools (SMP / MTs), Junior High School Extraordinary (SMPLB), High School / Madrasah Aliyah (SMA / MA), High School Foreign Regular (SMALB), and Vocational Secondary School (SMK) Year 2009/2010 Lessons
Standard Operating Procedures (POS) Implementation of the UN Year of 2009 can be viewed here:

* POS UASBN SD / MI / SDLB Studies Year 2009/2010
* POS UN SMA / MA Studies Year 2009/2010
* POS UN SMP, MTs, SMPLB SMALB, AND Vocational Studies Year 2009/2010

To get more information please contact:

BSNP Building D 2nd Floor Mandikdasmen
Jl. RS Fatmawati, South Jakarta Cipete
Tel. (021) 7668590 Fax. (021) 7668591

DIPONEGORO PRINCE










Source :
http://www.yogyes.com/id/yogyakarta-tourism-object/museum-and-monument/sasana-wiratama/

DIPONEGORO PRINCE
Blooded patrician, a direct descendant of King of Yogyakarta, but rather chose to live simpler with the commoners. Prince Diponegoro is one of the dreaded fighters Dutch colonizers.

July 20, 1825
Castle residence of Prince Diponegoro, Tegal Rejo

Outer wall of sound explosion weapon three times, the war has begun. The north side, east and south of the Dutch troops had been besieged. Warriors who lived on the west side to fight hard. Under the leadership of Joyomustopo and Joyoprawiro, the army pushed back. Different strengths far. A man in white with a white turban wrapped around her head, calmly and wisely chose to break down the western wall of the castle. With a few broken wall breakthrough. One command to save the family and the remaining army. With his entire army, the white-robed men prefer away to the west. A tough decision for the safety of family and laskarnya.
"Real war was about to begin" he thought to himself.
Diponegoro Kanjeng

Born in the Sultan's Palace on November 11, 1785, a small named Raden Mas Bandoro Ontowiryo and as an adult title of Prince Diponegoro Kanjeng is the eldest son of Raden Ayu Mangkorowati (daughter of the Regent Pacitan) concubine of Sultan Hamengkubuwono III (HB III).

Prince Diponegoro was more interested in religious life and equality with the people, so he chose to stay in the Village Tegalrejo.
Java War

During the leadership of HB V (1822), Prince Diponegoro not approve if the system is held by the government with Danurejo Patih Dutch Investigation. The revolt culminated in the year 1825, after the Dutch made the road connecting Yogyakarta and Magelang He passed the home page (now the railroad tracks). Dutch did not ask permission to get resistance from Prince Prince and laskarnya. The Dutch have reason to arrest Prince Diponegoro for votes had rebelled, on July 20, 1825 surrounded his residence. Urgency, the Prince and his family and his army to escape to the west until Village Dekso Kulonprogo district, and continued south until he reached the cave Selarong located five kilometers west of the town of Bantul.

While the Dutch who did not catch Prince Diponegoro burned down the residence of Prince.

In Goa, located in Selarong Kentolan Lor village, Bantul Displays Guwosari, Prince Diponegoro basis for guerrilla strategy against the Dutch. Prince occupies the western cave called Cave Kakung, who also became his sanctuary. While Retnaningsih Raden Ayu (the most loyal concubine accompanied Prince after his wife died two) and his retinue occupied Goa Princess in the east.

Diponegoro War in history books written by Dutch writer called Java Oorlog (War of Java), lasted until 1830. In this war, the Dutch loss of not less than 15,000 soldiers and spend funds up to 20 million guilders.
Making History Sasana Wiratama

Located about 4 miles from the center of Yogyakarta, an area of 2.5 hectares of land which was initially managed by the Department of Tourism and Culture, delivered by the heirs of Prince Diponegoro, Raden Ayu Kanjangteng Diponegoro, to be his monument after signing a letter of submission with Hajar Dewantara and Nyi Raden Kanjeng Tumenggung Purejodiningrat. In the land that now belongs to Sultan's Palace that began mid-1968 to 19 August 1969 built a monument to the building adjoining Pringgitan with marquee right in the middle of the complex is initiated by Major General Surono was the then regional commanders (Commander) and inaugurated by the President Suharto. This place was then called Sasana Wiratama which means the soldiers.

Prince Diponegoro Monument is carved reliefs on the walls Pringgitan with 20 meters long and 4 feet tall, told state Tegalrejo a peaceful village and peaceful, Diponegoro's war against the Dutch Government to get caught in Magelang. This monument is a statue carved by the artist Drs. Saptoto of Indonesian Fine Arts Academy (ASRI), assisted Sutopo, Sokodiharjo, and Askabul. On both sides of the monument are these images of themselves in the west of Prince and Prince's painting of black horse is ready to fight in the east.

Passing through the main gate, turn to the west, surrounded by the museum hall, the walls broken, mess and library. The building addition includes gate pavilion built in 1970 and 1973 led Alm. Major General Widodo. While the wall was breached and its legacy of Prince Diponegoro a Padasan (Prince berwudlu place) located in front of the pavilion and the Stone Comboran (eating and drinking places horses Prince) in the southeastern part of the marquee.

In front of the building situated on the road in the village of HOS Cokroaminoto Tegalrejo, there is a statue of Lieutenant General Urip Soemohardjo labeled "Order. Contre-Ordre. Desordre!" on the east side and the Great Commander General Sudirman marked "Do not complacent" in the west side. This statue is only a symbol as a place to commemorate the struggle for independence the Indonesian nation. After passing through the gate there is a wall eight feet tall is more shaped like a dome of a mosque at the top of the image of a giant fighting a dragon. "Image is significantly yellow Basuki Butho Bawono Mekso which is Sengkolo Suryo Memet, who wore a picture sengkalan" said Mr. Budiman in YogYES. Every known Sengkalan means read it backwards. Sengkalan which means 5281 has a meaning in 1825 as a sign of Prince Diponegoro war.
Remains Goods

Diponegoro Museum collection numbering 100 pieces, which consists of a variety of original weapons from the army of Diponegoro war weapons, coins, agate to household appliances. Various weapons such as spears, keris, swords, arrows, "bandil" (a kind of hammer made of iron), "patrem" (female warrior weapon), until "Candrasa" (a sharp weapon that looks like a pin) are commonly used "telik password "(a spy) women. While a number of artificial appliance 1700s brass betel consists of places and "kecohan" it (the mebuang saliva), the "canting" (tools for batik), pot 'bingsing ", bowl to various forms" kacip "(a tool to split betel nut).

In this museum also saved two sacred weapons, namely a keris with curves 21 named Kyai Omyang, artificial seornag master who lived during the Majapahit kingdom and the sword that came from the Kingdom of Demak. Both weapons are believed to be refused reinforcements.

There is also a small statue of Ganesh, the rope to pull the carriage horse gift horse HB VIII, a pair of statues and a pair of Loro Blonyo lights. In the marquee can be seen a set of gamelan instruments made in HB 1752 II ketipung form (small drum) and wilahan boning penembung made of wood and bronze red and yellow. The whole "wilahan" or the iron is still the original, only wooden gamelan are already replaced because of rotting with age. There is also a pair of cannons on the front and a cannon in the east hall.

In addition to broken walls, and Padasan Stone Comboran, there are relics of another prince in Magelang (Book of the Holy Qur'an, Cups and Teko, Cloak Prince and Four Chairs One Table), in Jakarta Satria Mandala Museum (saddle horse and spear) and a property kris Prince who has not returned and are still stored in the Netherlands.
A Great Warrior's departure

After the war for five years and suffered great losses and promising rewards for 50,000 guilders could grasp Prince Diponegoro, the Netherlands has not been able to membekuk Prince.

* February 16, 1830, Colonel Cleerens meet Prince Diponegoro in Remo Kamal, Bagelan, Purworejo, to take conferred in Magelang. The suggestion was approved Prince.
* On March 28, 1830, with laskarnya, Prince Diponegoro to meet Lieutenant-Governor-General Mark de Kock. At the meeting Prince De Kock forced to stop the war. Prince denied the request. But the Netherlands, through Colonel Du Perron had been carefully prepared ambush. Prince and the entire laskarnya successfully disabled. That same day the prince was exiled to Ungaran then taken to a House Residency Semarang.
* On 5 April 1830 was taken to Batavia to use Pollux ship.
* 11 April 1830 when he got in Batavia, he was arrested in Stadhuis (current Building Museum Fatahillah).
* 30 April 1830, the Governor-General Van den Bosch exile condemned the Prince Diponegoro, Retnaningsih, Tumenggung Diposono and wife, and other followers like Mertoleksono, Bull Planthopper also Nyai Sotaruno to Manado.
* May 3, 1830, the group departed the ship Prince Pollux and imprisoned at Fort Amsterdam. Dutch prince who was still a threat, because in this place can still communicate with people.
* In the year 1834 was exiled separately. Prince with Retnaningsih exiled to Makassar, South Sulawesi, and on hold at Fort Roterdam in strict supervision.
* In this castle, the Prince is no longer free to move. Spending her days with Retnaningsih, Prince Diponegoro finally breathed his last breath on January 8, 1855. He remains buried in Kampung Melayu Makassar, alongside Retnaningsih tomb.

After 151 years, leaving he remains a big loss for the nation of Indonesia. A spirit of struggle without giving up familiar words.

Remembering a great warrior nation can in many ways. But if you want to feel more closely how the spirit of resistance of Prince Diponegoro, a perforated wall will be a silent witness that will tell. A wall that fight with his bare hands until the hole. Unusual scene of course, and it is only in the Sasana Wiratama. (YogYES.COM: R. Shah)

Museum Sasana Wiratama / Diponegoro Monument
Jl. HOS Cokroaminoto TR.III/430 Tegalrejo, Yogyakarta
Phone: 62 274 6226 68.

Schedule of visits:
Day Monday to Saturday: At 08.00 s / d 13:00
Sunday: Closed
Entrance Fee: Voluntary

Activated Carbon Fibers Help Remove NOx

Source :
http://www.japanfs.org/en/pages/025507.html

A research team in Fukuoka Prefecture, Japan, has succeeded in removing nitrogen oxides (NOx) from exhaust emissions with a special type of carbon fibers. In the demonstration test in October 2003, more than 90 percent of nitrogen monoxide was removed from exhaust fumes. The result is attracting worldwide attention. The research team was made up of two groups of researchers: one led by Dr. Takaaki Shimohara at the Fukuoka Institute of Health and Environmental Science, and the other by Dr. Isao Mochida at the Institute of Advanced Material Study of Kyushu University.

The activated carbon fibers are extremely fine and have numerous microsopic pores on their surface, giving them a huge surface area despite their small volume. In the test, atmospheric NOx was either absorbed by the activated carbon fibers or decomposed into nitrogen gas and water.

Other options are also available to remove NOx emissions, such as photocatalysis systems using titanium dioxide or soil filter systems. They are, however, not efficient enough to remove atmospheric NOx, and do require maintenance costs and time.

By contrast, activated carbon fibers efficiently clean up the air with little maintenance expense and their production cost is low. The fibers can be easily processed into any compact design. They are also reusable after being calcined at 200 degrees Celsius, because absorbed NOx comes off from the surface under these conditions. Expected applications include walls along highways and in underground parking lots.

Study Shows Forests Filter and Capture Lead from Polluted Air

Source :
http://www.japanfs.org/en/pages/026963.html

The Forestry and Forest Products Research Institute, a quasi-governmental "independent administrative agency" in Japan, has demonstrated how a cedar forest ecosystem functions to filter and collect lead from polluted air and prevent efflux back into the environment, according to its report released on October 23, 2007.

Researchers first measured and analyzed lead levels in Japanese cedar trees and soil in forests in Japan's Kanto region. As a result, in addition to finding direct absorption of lead in the soil, it identified a forest mechanism that prevents lead runoff through a cyclical process in which lead in the air is first washed to the earth by precipitation, taken up by tree roots, accumulates in the leaves and branches, and eventually returns to the surface soil when leaves fall to begin the cycle again.

Even a small amount of lead is harmful to living organisms, and it is retained for a long time once released into the environment. By the late twentieth century, a large amount of lead had been used as a gasoline additive and released into the air through emissions. Although most Japanese assume that the problem of lead-polluted air was solved with the introduction of a lead-free gasoline policy in Japan, various other human activities continue as sources of lead emissions even now.

The institute plans to further assess the impact of lead accumulation on forest plants and animals, as well as track the effects of lead on forest soil surfaces.

http://www.ffpri.affrc.go.jp/e_version/index-e.html

Liquids and their interfaces Viscosity, surface tension, wetting, bubbles

Source :

http://www.chem1.com/acad/webtext/states/liquids.html

The molecular units of a liquid, like those of solids, are in direct contact, but never for any length of time and in the same locations. Whereas the molecules or ions of a solid maintain the same average positions, those of liquids are continually jumping and sliding to new ones, giving liquids something of the mobility of gases. From the standpoint of chemistry, this represents the best of two worlds; rapid chemical change requires intimate contact between the agents undergoing reaction, but these agents, along with the reaction products, must be free to move away to allow new contacts and further reaction to take place. This is why so much of what we do with chemistry takes place in the liquid phase.

1 What is a liquid?

Liquids occupy a rather peculiar place in the trinity of solid, liquid and gas. A liquid is the preferred state of a substance at temperatures intermediate between the realms of the solid and the gas. But if you look at the melting and boiling points of a variety of substances , you will notice that the temperature range within which many liquids can exist tends to be rather small. In this, and in a number of other ways, the liquid state appears to be somewhat tenuous and insecure, as if it had no clear right to exist at all, and only does so as an oversight of Nature.

liquid temperature ranges

Certainly the liquid state is the most complicated of the three states of matter to analyze and to understand. But just as people whose personalities are more complicated and enigmatic are often the most interesting ones to know, it is these same features that make the liquid state of matter the most fascinating to study.


How do we know it’s a liquid?

Anyone can usually tell if a substance is a liquid simply by looking at it. What special physical properties do liquids possess that make them so easy to recognize? One obvious property is their mobility, which refers to their ability to move around, to change their shape to conform to that of a container, to flow in response to a pressure gradient, and to be displaced by other objects. But these properties are shared by gases, the other member of the two fluid states of matter. The real giveaway is that a liquid occupies a fixed volume, with the consequence that a liquid possesses a definite surface. Gases, of course, do not; the volume and shape of a gas are simply those of the container in which it is confined. The higher density of a liquid also plays a role here; it is only because of the large density difference between a liquid and the space above it that we can see the surface at all. (What we are really seeing are the effects of reflection and refraction that occur when light passes across the boundary between two phases differing in density, or more precisely, in their refractive indexes.)

Flow properties of liquids: the viscosity

viscometerThe term viscosity is a measure of resistance to flow. It can be measured by observing the time required for a given volume of liquid to flow through the narrow part of a viscometer tube.

The viscosity of a substance is related to the strength of the forces acting between its molecular units. In the case of water, these forces are primarily due to hydrogen bonding. Liquids such as syrups and honey are much more viscous because the sugars they contain are studded with hydroxyl groups (–OH) which can form multiple hydrogen bonds with water and with each other, producing a sticky disordered network.

substance
viscosity
water H(OH) 1.00
diethyl ether (CH3-CH2)2O 0.23
benzene C6H6 0.65
glycerin C3H2(OH)3 280
mercury 1.5
motor oil, SAE30 200
honey ~10,000
molasses ~5000
pancake syrup ~3000

Specific viscosity (i.e., relative to water) of some liquids at 20°C.

Even in the absence of hydrogen bonding, dispersion forces are universally present (as in mercury). Because these forces are additive, they can be very significant in long carbon-chain molecules such as those found in oils used in cooking and for lubrication. Most "straight-chain" molecules are really bent into complex shapes, and dispersion forces tend to preserve their spaghetti-like entanglements with their neighbors.

Temperature dependence of viscosity

The temperature dependence of the viscosity of liquids is well known to anyone who has tried to pour cold syrup on a pancake. Because the forces that give rise to viscosity are weak, they are easily overcome by thermal motions, so it is no surprise that viscosity decreases as the temperature rises.

Viscosity of Water as a Function of Temperature
T/°C 0 10 20 40 60 80 100
viscosity/cP 1.8 1.3 1.0 0.65 0.47 0.36 0.28
Automotive lubricating oils can be too viscous at low temperatures (making it harder for your car to operate on a cold day), while losing so much viscosity at engine operating temperatures that their lubricating properties become impaired. These engine oils are sold in a wide range of viscosities; the higher-viscosity oils are used in warmer weather and the lower-viscosity oils in colder weather. The idea is to achieve a fairly constant viscosity that is ideal for the particular application. By blending in certain ingredients, lubricant manufacturers are able to formulate “multigrade” oils whose viscosities are less sensitive to temperatures, thus making a single product useful over a much wider temperature range.

For more on viscosity, see this Physics Hypertextbok page.

How viscosity impedes flow

The next time you pour a viscous liquid over a surface, notice how different parts of the liquid move at different rates and sometimes in different directions. In order to flow freely, the particles making up a fluid must be able to move independently. Intermolecular attractive forces work against this, making it difficult for one molecule to pull away from its neighbors and force its way in between new neighbors.


The pressure drop that is observed when a liquid flows through a pipe is a direct consequence of viscosity. Those molecules that happen to find themselves near the inner walls of a tube tend to spend much of their time attached to the walls by intermolecular forces, and thus move forward very slowly. viscosityMovement of the next layer of molecules is impeded as they slip and slide over the slow-movers; this process continues across successive layers of molecules as we move toward the center of the tube, where the velocity is greatest. This effect is called viscous drag, and is directly responsible for the pressure drop that can be quite noticeable when you are taking a shower bath and someone else in the house suddenly turns on the water in the kitchen.

Liquids and gases are both fluids and exhibit resistance to flow through a confined space. But it's interesting (and not often appreciated) that their viscosities have entirely different origins, and that they vary with temperature in opposite ways. Why should the viscosity of a gas increase with temperature? Find out here.

Surface tension

A molecule within the bulk of a liquid experiences attractions to neighboring molecules in all directions, but since these average out to zero, there is no net force on the molecule because it is, on the average, as energetically comfortable in one location within the liquid as in another.

surface tension

Liquids ordinarily do have surfaces, however, and a molecule that finds itself in such a location is attracted to its neighbors below and to either side, but there is no attraction operating in the 180° solid angle above the surface. As a consequence, a molecule at the surface will tend to be drawn into the bulk of the liquid. Conversely, work must be done in order to move a molecule within a liquid to its surface.

Why liquids form drops

Clearly there must always be some molecules at the surface, but the smaller the surface area, the lower the potential energy. Thus intermolecular attractive forces act to minimize the surface area of a liquid.

The geometric shape that has the smallest ratio of surface area to volume is the sphere, so very small quantities of liquids tend to form spherical drops. As the drops get bigger, their weight deforms them into the typical tear shape.

... and bubbles

Think of a bubble as a hollow drop. Surface tension acts to minimize the surface, and thus the radius of the spherical shell of liquid, but this is opposed by the pressure of vapor trapped within the bubble. For a more detailed analysis, see here. We discuss bubbles in much more detail farther down on this page.

The surface film

raft spiderpaperclip on waterThe imbalance of forces near the upper surface of a liquid has the effect of an elastic film stretched across the surface. You have probably seen water striders and other insects take advantage of this when they walk across a pond. Similarly, you can carefully "float" a light object such as a steel paperclip on the surface of water in a cup. (How to do it)

Left: Raft spider by thomsonalasdair; Right: photo by Jeffffd

Surface tensions of common liquids

Surface tension is defined as the amount of work that must be done in order to create unit area of surface. The SI units are J m–2 (or N m–1) but values are more commonly expressed in mN m–1 or in cgs units of dyn cm–1 or erg cm–2.
substance
surface tension
water H(OH) 72.7 dyne/cm
diethyl ether (CH3-CH2)2O 17.0
benzene C6H6 40.0
glycerin C3H2(OH)3 63
mercury (15°C) 487
n-octane 21.8
sodium chloride solution (6M in water) 82.5

sucrose solution
(85% in water)

76.4
sodium oleate (soap) solution in water 25

The table shows the surface tensions of several liquids at room temperature. Note especially that

  • hydrocarbons and non-polar liquids such as ether have rather low values
  • one of the main functions of soaps and other surfactants is to reduce the surface tension of water
  • mercury has the highest surface tension of any liquid at room temperature. It is so high that mercury does not flow in the ordinary way, but breaks into small droplets that roll independently.

Surface tension and viscosity are not directly related, as you can verify by noting the disparate values of these two quantities for mercury. Viscosity depends on intermolecular forces within the liquid, whereas surface tension arises from the difference in the magnitudes of these forces within the liquid and at the surface.

Surface tension and temperature

Surface tension is also affected by the electrostatic charge of a body. This is most dramatically illustrated by the famous "mercury beating heart" demo; click here to pop up a video with audio narration.
Surface tension of water
°C dynes/cm
0 75.9
20 72.7
50 67.9
100 58.9

Surface tension always decreases with temperature as thermal motions reduce the effect of intermolecular attractions. This is one reason why washing with warm water is more effective; the lower surface tension allows water to more readily penetrate a fabric.

2 Interfacial effects in liquids

The surface tension discussed immediately above is an attribute of a liquid in contact with a gas (ordinarily the air or vapor) or a vacuum. But if you think about it, the molecules in the part of a liquid that is in contact with any other phase (liquid or solid) will experience a different balance of forces than the molecules within the bulk of the liquid. Thus surface tension is a special case of the more general interfacial tension which is defined by the work associated with moving a molecule from within the bulk liquid to the interface with any other phase.

Wetting

Take a plastic mixing bowl from your kitchen, and splash some water around in it. You will probably observe that the water does not cover the inside surface uniformly, but remains dispersed into drops.

The same effect is seen on a dirty windshield; running the wipers simply breaks hundreds of drops into thousands. By contrast, water poured over a clean glass surface will wet it, leaving a uniform film.

← This photo of water drops on a leaf shows how the waxy coating naturally present on most leaves prevents its wetting. [omnia]

When a molecule of a liquid is in contact with another phase, its behavior depends on the relative attractive strengths of its neighbors on the two sides of the phase boundary. If the molecule is more strongly attracted to its own kind, then interfacial tension will act to minimize the area of contact by increasing the curvature of the surface. This is what happens at the interface between water and a hydrophobic surface such as a plastic mixing bowl or a windshield coated with oily material.

A liquid will wet a surface if the angle at which it makes contact with the surface is less than 90°. The value of this contact angle can be predicted from the properties of the liquid and solid separately.

wetting of a surface

A clean glass surface, by contrast, has –OH groups sticking out of it which readily attach to water molecules through hydrogen bonding; the lowest potential energy now occurs when the contact area between the glass and water is maximized. This causes the water to spread out evenly over the surface, or to wet it.

Surfactants

surfactant moleculeThe surface tension of water can be reduced to about one-third of its normal value by adding some soap or synthetic detergent. These substances, known collectively as surfactants, are generally hydrocarbon molecules having an ionic group on one end. The ionic group, being highly polar, is strongly attracted to water molecules; we say it is hydrophilic. The hydrocarbon (hydrophobic) portion is just the opposite; inserting it into water would break up the local hydrogen-bonding forces and is therefore energetically unfavorable. What happens, then, is that the surfactant molecules migrate to the surface with their hydrophobic ends sticking out, effectively creating a new surface. Because hydrocarbons interact only through very weak dispersion forces, this new surface has a greatly reduced surface tension.

surfactant

Washing

detergent actionHow do soaps and detergents help get things clean? There are two main mechanisms. First, by reducing water's suface tension, the water can more readily penetrate fabrics (see the illustration under "Water repellency" below.) Secondly, much of what we call "dirt" consists of non-water soluble oils and greasy materials which the hydrophobic ends of surfactant molecules can penetrate. When they do so in sufficient numbers and with their polar ends sticking out, the resulting aggregate can hydrogen-bond to water and becomes "solubilized".

Washing is usually more effective in warm water; higher temperatures reduce the surface tension of the water and make it easier for the surfactant molecules to penetrate the material to be removed.

magnetic laundry diskCan magnets reduce the surface tension of water? The answer is no, but claims that they can are widely circulated in promotions of dubious products such as "magnetic laundry disks" which are supposed to reduce the need for detergents. (See here for more on these scams.)

Water repellency

In Gore-Tex, one of the more successful water-proof fabrics, the fibers are made non-wettable by coating them with a Teflon-like fluoropolymer.

watter repellency

Water is quite strongly attracted to many natural fibers such as cotton and linen through hydrogen-bonding to their cellulosic hydroxyl groups. A droplet that falls on such a material will flatten out and be drawn through the fabric. One way to prevent this is to coat the fibers with a polymeric material that is not readily wetted. The water tends to curve away from the fibers so as to minimize the area of contact, so the droplets are supported on the gridwork of the fabric but tend not to fall through.

Capillary rise

If the walls of a narrow tube can be efficiently wetted by a liquid, then the the liquid will be drawn up into the tube by capillary action. This effect is only noticeable in narrow containers (such as burettes) and especially in small-diameter capillary tubes. The smaller the diameter of the tube, the higher will be the capillary rise.

A clean glass surface is highly attractive to most molecules, so most liquids display a concave meniscus in a glass tube.

capillary rise

To help you understand capillary rise, the above diagram shows a glass tube of small cross-section inserted into an open container of water. The attraction of the water to the inner wall of the tube pulls the edges of the water up, creating a curved meniscus whose surface area is smaller than the cross-section area of the tube. The surface tension of the water acts against this enlargement of its surface by attempting to reduce the curvature, stretching the surface into a flatter shape by pulling the liquid farther up into the tube. This process continues until the weight of the liquid column becomes equal to the surface tension force, and the system reaches mechanical equilibrium.

Capillary rise results from a combination of two effects: the tendency of the liquid to wet (bind to) the surface of the tube (measured by the value of the contact angle), and the action of the liquid's surface tension to minimize its surface area.

capillary rise, meniscus

In the formula shown at the left (which you need not memorize!)

h = elevation of the liquid (m)
γ = surface tension (N/m)
θ = contact angle (radians)
ρ = density of liquid (kg/m3)
g = acceleration of gravity (m/s–2)
r = radius of tube (m)

For the derivation of this relation, see this Wikipedia article.

The contact angle between water and ordinary soda-lime glass is essentially zero; since the cosine of 0 radians is unity, its capillary rise is especially noticable. In general, water can be drawn very effectively into narrow openings such as the channels between fibers in a fabric and into porous materials such as soils.

mercury meniscusNote that if θ is greater than 90° (π/2 radians), the capillary "rise" will be negative — meaning that the molecules of the liquid are more strongly attracted to each other than to the surface. This is readily seen with mercury in a glass container, in which the meniscus is upwardly convex instead of concave.

The Meniscus Madness page is a good source
of photos and activities aimed at middle school.

Devices employing capillary action to create perpetual motion machines have been proposed. The Museum of Unworkable Devices illustrates two of them, and explains why they won't work.

Capillary action and trees

Capillary rise is the principal mechanism by which water is able to reach the highest parts of trees. Water strongly bonds to the narrow (25 μM) cellulose channels in the xylem. (Osmotic pressure and "suction" produced by loss of water vapor through the leaves also contribute to this effect, and are the main drivers of water flow in smaller plants.) For an interesting discussion of these effects, see this site.

Bubbles

Bubbles can be thought of as "negative drops" — spherical spaces within a liquid containing a gas, often just the vapor of the liquid. Bubbles within pure liquids such as water (which we see when water boils) are inherently unstable because the liquid's surface tension causes them to collapse. But in the presence of a surfactant, bubbles can be stabilized and given an independent if evanescent existence.

bubble pressureThe pressure of the gas inside a bubble Pin must be sufficient to oppose the pressure outside of it (Pout, the atmospheric pressure plus the hydrostatic pressure of any other fluid in which the bubble is immersed. But the force caused by surface tension γ of the liquid boundary also tends to collapse the bubble, so Pin must be greater than Pout by the amount of this force, which is given by 4γ/r:

LaPlace law

See here for a derivation of the LaPlace equation. This page explains more about LaPlace's law and relates it to the behavior of balloons.

The most important feature of this relationship (known as LaPlace's law) is the that the pressure required to maintain the bubble is inversely proportional to its radius. This means that the smallest bubbles have the greatest internal gas pressures! This might seem counterintuitive, but if you are an experienced soap-bubble blower, or have blown up a rubber balloon (in which the elastic of the rubber has an effect similar to the surface tension in a liquid), you will have noticed that you need to puff harder to begin the expansion.

Soap bubbles

shefali Nayan "Soap Bubbles"

All of us at one time or another have enjoyed the fascination of creating soap bubbles and admiring their intense and varied colors as they drift around in the air, seemingly aloof from the constraints that govern the behavior of ordinary objects — but only for a while! Their life eventually comes to an abrupt end as they fall to the ground or pop in mid-flight. (But in this fascinating commentary on the subject, the author cites the case of one that lasted just one day short of a year!)

image: Soap Bubbles (2007) by Shefali Nyan

soap bubble structureThe walls of these bubbles consist of a thin layer of water molecules sandwiched between two layers of surfactant molecules. Their spherical shape is of course the result of water's surface tension. Although the surfactant (soap) initially reduces the surface tension, expansion of the bubble spreads the water into a thiner layer and spreads the surfactant molecules over a wider area, deceasing their concentration. This, in turn, allows the water molecules to interact more strongly, increasing its surface tension and stabilizing the bubble as it expands.

The bright colors we see in bubbles arises from interference between light waves that are reflected back from the inner and outer surfaces, indicating that the thickness of the water layer is comparable the range of visible light (around 400-600 nm).

Once the bubble is released, it can endure until it strikes a solid surface or collapses owing to loss of the water layer by evaporation. The latter process can be slowed by adding a bit of glycerine to the liquid. A variety of recipes and commercial "bubble-making solutions" are available; some of the latter employ special liquid polymers which slow evaporation and greatly extend the bubble lifetimes. Bubbles blown at very low temperatures can be frozen, but these eventually collapse as the gas diffuses out.

alveoli

Click here to pop up a more detailed view of the alveoli and the lung.

Bubbles, surface tension, and breathing

The sites of gas exchange with the blood in mammalian lungs are tiny sacs known as alveoli. In humans there are about 150 million of these, having a total surface area about the size of a tennis court. The inner surface of each alveolus is about 0.25 mm in diameter and is coated with a film of water, whose high surface tension not only resists inflation, but would ordinarily cause the thin-walled alveoli to collapse. In order to counteract this effect, special cells in the alveolar wall secrete a phospholipid pulmonary surfactant that reduces the surface tension of the water film to about 35% of its normal value. But there is another problem: the alveoli can be regarded physically as a huge collection of interconnected bubbles of varying sizes. As noted above, the surface tension of a surfactant-stabilized bubble increases with their size. So by making it easier for the smaller alveoli to expand while inhibiting the expansion of the larger ones, the surfactant helps to equalize the volume changes of all the alveoli as one inhales and exhales.

Pulmonary surfactant is produced only in the later stages of fetal development, so premature infants often don't have enough and are subject to respiratory distress syndrome which can be fatal.

3 Structure of liquids

You can think of a simple liquid such as argon or methane as a collection of loosely-packed marbles that can assume various shapes.liquid structure Although the overall arrangement of the individual molecular units is entirely random, there is a certain amount of short-range order: the presence of one molecule at a given spot means that the neighboring molecules must be at least as far away as the sum of the two radii, and this in turn affects the possible locations of more distant concentric shells of molecules.

An important consequence of the disordered arrangement of molecules in a liquid is the presence of void spaces. These, together with the increased kinetic energy of colliding molecules which helps push them apart, are responsible for the approximately 15-percent decrease in density that is observed when solids based on simple spherical molecules such as Ne and Hg melt into liquids. These void spaces are believed to be the key to the flow properties of liquids; the more “holes” there are in the liquid, the more easily the molecules can slip and slide over one another.

As the temperature rises, thermal motions of the molecules increase and the local structure begins to deteriorate, as shown in the plots below.

liquid structure

There is very little experimental information on the structure of liquids, other than the X-ray diffraction studies that yield plots such as this one for liquid mercury.

This plot shows the relative probability of finding a mercury atom at a given distance from another atom located at distance 0. You can see that as thermal motions increase, the probabilities even out at greater distances.

It is very difficult to design experiments that yield the kind of information required to define the microscopic arrangement of molecules in the liquid state.

Many of our current ideas on the subject come from computer simulations based on hypothetical models. In a typical experiment, the paths of about 1000 molecules in a volume of space are calculated. The molecules are initially given random kinetic energies whose distribution is consistent with the Boltzmann distribution for a given temperature. The trajectories of all the molecules are followed as they change with time due to collisions and other interactions; these interactions must be calculated according to an assumed potential energy-vs.-distance function that is part of the particular model being investigated.

These computer experiments suggest that whatever structure simple liquids do possess is determined mainly by the repulsive forces between the molecules; the attractive forces act in a rather nondirectional, general way to hold the liquid together. It is also found that if spherical molecules are packed together as closely as geometry allows (in which each molecule would be in contact with twelve nearest neighbors), the collection will have a long-range order characteristic of a solid until the density is decreased by about ten percent, at which point the molecules can slide around and move past one another, thus preserving only short-range order. In recent years, experimental studies based on ultra-short laser flashes have revealed that local structures in liquids have extremely short lifetimes, of the order of picoseconds to nanoseconds.

liquid-solid interfaceIt has long been suspected that the region of a liquid that bounds a solid surface is more ordered than within the bulk liquid. This has been confirmed for the case of water in contact with silicon, in which the liquid's layers form layers, similar to what is found in liquid crystals. (The illustration is from a 1999 article in Physical Review Focus.)

Some useful references

BubbleTown - all abut how to blow large and long-lasting soap bubbles.

The SoapBubbler site has a wonderful commentary on bubbles, their applications, and history.

This MIT site features some interesting photos and videos on bubbles.

Soap bubbles, their colours and the forces which mold them. This classic popular book by Charles V. Boys, first published in 1890, was reprinted in 1958 and is still inexpensively available. It can also be viewed on Google Books.

Bubble Physics - This 2003 article in Physics Today contains some math, but also descriptions of many practical applications that are not commonly known.

What you should be able to do

Make sure you thoroughly understand the following essential ideas which have been presented above. It is especially imortant that you know the precise meanings of all the green-highlighted terms in the context of this topic.

  • Liquids are both fluids and condensed phases. Explain what this tells us about liquids, and what other states of matter fit into each of these categories.
  • Define viscosity, and comment on the molecular properties that correlate with viscosity.
  • Define surface tension and explain its cause.
  • State the major factors that determine the extent to which a liquid will wet a solid surface.
  • Explain what a surfactant is, and how it reduces the surface tension of water and aids in cleaning.
  • Explain the origins of capillary rise and indicate the major factors that affect it.
  • Describe the structure of a soap bubble, and comment on the role of the "soap" molecules in stabilizing it.
  • Comment on the applicability of the term "structure" when describing a pure liquid phase.

Concept map

liquids concept map