About Chemistry, Environment, Waste Management and Green Life Inspirations

18 July 2010

Coconut Oil As Diesel Fuel Substitute


Utilization of Palm Oil as a Source of New Energy Departure from the concerns of the fishermen will have difficulty in accessing remote areas for diesel fuel, Central Library Desrial, M. Eng, Chairman, Department of Agricultural Technique, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB) developed an innovative converter fuel oil into diesel fuel equivalent. Fishermen living in coastal areas, will certainly younger than the solar access of coconut oil. Coconut is grown in many coastal areas can be used for various things, one of which is to transform the flesh into coconut milk and coconut oil, and separates between fat and water. Fat is then to be coconut oil. Meanwhile, to make one liter of coconut oil, it takes twenty coconuts.
In addition to these efforts, coconut oil can also be obtained from copra. Copra is dried coconut flesh and oil contain as much as 34.7 percent. After drying, copra cut into small pieces. Then by pressing the discount will produce palm oil. Coconut oil was precipitated and filtered. Screening results are given alkali potassium hydroxide (KOH) or sodium hydroxide (NaOH) to remove free fatty acids. Then clarified by absorbing the color of charcoal (carbon) is active. Sorting the coconut that will be made when the dried copra. Copra is later to be sold to a dealer to be used as cooking oil Filing coconut Basically, coconut oil has a viscosity of 50-60 degrees centi-Stokes (cSt). But with heating oil at a temperature of 80-90 degrees Celsius, the degree of viscosity of palm oil was going to match the degree of solar is 5 cSt viscosity. Coconut oil is heated by using the coil in the exhaust shaft. After reaching the temperature of 80-90 degrees centigrade, dikabutkan coconut oil to diesel engine combustion chamber. Coconut oil Here are experiencing the same process as diesel fuel, palm oil burned to produce energy of motion machine. To purchase a cooling coil and modify diesel engine exhaust into palm oil converter will cost around Rp. 100 000. Even so, the cost is still cheaper than the cost incurred by the fishermen to buy diesel fuel continuously. In addition to efforts undertaken by IPB lecturer, actually has a lot of work done by the other parties to create new energy sources, including by young people. Various efforts, it is hoped will inspire young children to continue to innovate and develop technology-technology that seeks to preserve the environment and fight climate change.
Adapted from Kompas, May 21, 2010, pp. 14.

Minyak Kelapa Sebagai Pengganti Solar

Pemanfaatan Minyak Kelapa sebagai Sumber Energi Baru
Berangkat dari keprihatinan akan kesulitan nelayan di daerah terpencil untuk mengakses solar, Dr.Ir. Desrial, M.Eng, Ketua Departemen Tekhnik Pertanian Institut Pertanian Bogor (IPB) mengembangkan sebuah inovasi pengubah minyak kelapa menjadi bahaan bakar setara solar.
Nelayan yang tinggal di daerah pantai, tentunya akan lebih muda mengakses minyak kelapa dibandingkan solar. Kelapa yang banyak tumbuh di daerah pantai bisa dimanfaatkan untuk berbagai macam hal, salah satunya adalah mengubah daging minyak kelapa menjadi santan, lalu memisahkan antara lemak dan airnya. Lemak inilah yang kemudian menjadi minyak kelapa. Sedangkan untuk membuat satu liter minyak kelapa, dibutuhkan dua puluh butir kelapa.

Selain usaha ini, minyak kelapa juga bisa didapat dari kopra. Kopra adalah daging kelapa yang dikeringkan dan mengandung minyak sebanyak 34,7 persen. Setelah proses pengeringan, kopra dipotong kecil-kecil. Kemudian dengan pengepresan potongan tersebut akan menghasilkan minyak kelapa. Minyak kelapa ini diendapkan dan disaring. Hasil penyaringan diberi alkali kalium hidroksida (KOH) atau natrium hidroksida (NaOH) untuk menghilangkan asam lemak bebas. Kemudian dijernihkan dengan penyerap warna berupa arang (karbon) aktif.
Pada dasarnya minyak kelapa memiliki derajat kekentalan 50-60 centi-Stokes (cSt). Namun dengan memanaskan minyak kelapa pada suhu 80-90 derajat Celsius, derajat kekentalan minyak kelapa tadi akan menyamai derajat kekentalan solar yaitu 5 cSt. Minyak kelapa dipanaskan dengan menggunakan koil pada batang knalpot. Setelah mencapai suhu 80-90 derajat celcius, minyak kelapa dikabutkan ke ruang pembakaran mesin diesel. Disini minyak kelapa tersebut mengalami proses yang sama seperti solar, minyak kelapa dibakar hingga menghasilkan energi gerak mesin. Untuk membeli koil pendingin dan memodifikasi knalpot mesin diesel menjadi konverter minyak kelapa dibutuhkan biaya sekitar Rp. 100.000. Walaupun begitu, biaya yang dikeluarkan ini masih lebih murah dibanding biaya yang dikeluarkan nelayan untuk membeli bahan bakar solar secara terus menerus.
Selain usaha yang dilakukan oleh dosen IPB ini, sebenarnya telah banyak usaha yang dilakukan oleh pihak-pihak lain untuk menciptakan berbagai sumber energi baru, termasuk oleh anak muda. Berbagai usaha ini, diharapkan akan menginspirasi anak muda untuk terus berinovasi dan mengembangkan tekhnologi-tekhnologi yang berupaya untuk melestarikan lingkungan dan melawan perubahan iklim.

Disadur dari Kompas, 21 Mei 2010, hal. 14.

16 July 2010

Should Ethanol Subsidies be Renewed?

Jeff Coombe

The Ethanol industry has only responded tepidly to the Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit in the past, so why should it be renewed?

The U.S. ethanol industry is nearing a major deadline. The industry's primary subsidy mechanism, the Volumetric Ethanol Excise Tax Credit (VEETC), is set to expire on December 31, 2010. Federal ethanol subsidies were worth roughly $5 billion in 2009, a figure large enough to create vigorous debate over their renewal. Some call the credits a boondoggle, others a vitally important lifeline for an industry still in its formative years.

Whichever it is, one has to wonder whether we as a country and as taxpayers are getting our money's worth for it. All subsidies are intrinsically positive for the industries they support, of course. But how much of an impact is really felt by the industry, especially as compared to the cost to the taxpayer, is much harder to quantify.

This article will look at the history of subsidies and other government support mechanisms for the ethanol industry, and how they result in increased production, plant construction, and stock pricing. By lining up the dates of landmark legislation with several industry performance metrics, we are able to view the industry response in terms of production and growth, rather than rhetoric. Only pure-play ethanol company stocks are reviewed, represented here by Andersons, Inc. (ANDE), Pacific Ethanol (PEIX), BioFuel Energy Corp. (BIOF), and the now-defunct VeraSun Energy (VSE).

The data below is a limited snapshot, and cannot account for the myriad of variables that affect the ethanol industry. Supply-and-demand market conditions, economic climate, and even public perception impact businesses and investment decisions. While keeping this in mind, it is still striking how little of an effect the VEETC, by far the largest biofuel subsidy, has on the industry as a whole. Almost no metrics responded positively to key dates in the VEETC history, instead seeming to respond much more to direct producer incentives and production / use mandates.

History of Ethanol Incentives

The VEETC was enacted on October 22, 2004 with the American Jobs Creation Act, and set a $0.51/gallon credit for any blender of ethanol into the petroleum gasoline stream. It replaced a convoluted set of subsidies begun in 1979, with a partial federal tax exemption of gasoline blended with at least 10% ethanol (gasohol) by the Energy Tax Act. Fuel blender's tax credits and a pure alcohol tax credit were subsequently added, achieving roughly the same goals, but available to smaller fuel blenders that were unable to receive the excise tax exemption. The VEETC streamlined this system and provided a single mechanism for subsidizing ethanol use. The 2008 Farm Bill reduced the VEETC credit to $0.45/gallon.

One other federal tax credit applied to ethanol, the Small Ethanol Producer Tax Credit. Enacted in 1990, this credit allowed plants producing less than 30 million gallon per year to receive a $0.10/gallon credit for the first 15 million gallons of fuel produced annually. The size of plants that can receive the tax credit was subsequently raised to 60 million gallons per year, though it still only applied to the first 15 million gallons of annual production. The Small Ethanol Producer Tax Credit also expires at the end of 2010. In addition, some 30 states have enacted their own biofuel incentive measures.

The federal government also uses non-monetary support mechanisms to assist the ethanol industry. Foremost amongst those is the Renewable Fuel Standard (RFS), enacted with the August 8, 2005 Energy Policy Act, and amended with the Energy Independence and Security Act, signed into law on December 19, 2007. RFS1 was the 2005 version, and mandated that specific minimum volumes of ethanol be blended with gasoline in the national fuel pool. Starting at 4 billion gallons in 2006, the RFS ramped up the minimum volume of ethanol that had to be blended with gasoline to 7.5 billion gallons by 2012. The industry grew much faster than expected, though, and in 2007 the RFS was amended (RFS2). This raised the minimum volume of corn ethanol blending to 15 billion gallons per year, and adds another 20 billion gallons of cellulosic ethanol, biodiesel, and other advanced renewable fuels by 2022.

Early Years of the Ethanol Industry

Ethanol production as a large-scale industry began in the 1970's. Over 150 ethanol plants, mostly small on-farm distilleries, were built in response to the OPEC oil crisis and fuel prices spikes. However, many plants were going out of business by the end of the decade, and the first ethanol subsidy was installed in 1979 to support the flagging industry. While the volume of production steadily rose in the 1980's and 1990's, the excise taxes failed to stem the drop in plant numbers. By the mid-1980's, there were less than 40 ethanol plants in the U.S. Figure 1 shows numbers of U.S. ethanol plants and production numbers from 1960-2000. Reliable ethanol production volumes were not tracked until 1980.


*Source: RFA 2010 Ethanol Industry Outlook
**Source: BBI International

While the total number of plants barely changed in the 1980's and early 1990's, larger scale plants were being constructed and the ethanol production volume increased steadily over that time period. The Small Ethanol Producer Tax Credit was installed in 1990, and likely contributed to an increase in total production from 900 million gallons in 1990 to 1.4 billion gallons in 1995. How this credit was set up is in itself an indicator of its impact on the ethanol industry. The Small Ethanol Producer Tax Credit is the only credit that is paid directly to the companies that make ethanol. The VEETC and its predecessor excise credits are paid to fuel blenders, which are often petroleum refineries or bulk distributors, and not the ethanol producers themselves. While the majority of the excise credit finds its way back to producers in the form of better prices for their product, the subsidy effectively incentivizes oil companies to use ethanol.

Boom Times

Everyone knows the ethanol industry experienced a boom cycle in the mid-2000's. What is less agreed upon is what set of market forces really caused this boom. Contrary to popular belief, the data shows that the VEETC, enacted in 2004, did not immediately result in a change of ethanol plant construction. Between 2002 and 2005, the number of new plants or plant expansions announced held relatively static in the neighborhood of 15 plants per year. Total production capacity of plants grew slightly during that time. The real growth in the ethanol industry came in 2006 and 2007, which more closely corresponds to the RFS implementation. Figure 2 shows the relative inactivity between 2004 and 2005, and the large increase in construction projects from 2006-2008.

It is important to take into account the lag time between when a project is conceived and construction begins. This lag allows for the requisite capital to be raised, construction firms contracted, and other aspects of the project to be developed to the point that construction can be announced. In the ethanol industry, and especially in the boom years, the project development period is usually on the order of 12-18 months. If the VEETC was a major difference maker in the decision to build an ethanol plant, at least some early adopters would have been able to capitalize in 2005, and would have registered an uptick in construction. As it worked out, though, the bulk of industry growth came 2-3 years later.


Source: Renewable Fuels Association

A measure of a company's health, and the most immediate indicator of positive and negative changes affecting a company, are shown in its stock price. In today's investing world, stock prices respond instantly to the slightest news, and it is here that the indifference towards the VEETC is most apparent.

If financial experts had agreed it was vital for the industry, stock prices should have jumped after signing of the VEETC. On the contrary, Figure 3 shows that there was almost no change in ethanol company stock pricing in 2004 and most of 2005. It was late-2005 and 2006 before the pure-play ethanol company stocks began their meteoric rise, immediately after signing of RFS1. Later, the increase in mandated volumes of ethanol production, through RFS2 in 2007, lines up with minor spikes in all four stock prices. This data indicates that investors were more responsive to RFS legislation than the VEETC. (Stocks are shown as a percentage of their highest point within the time period, in order to show the wide range of share values on one graph.)



The other end of the boom (late 2008 and 2009) saw the bankruptcy of VeraSun, sharp drops in ethanol stocks and almost instant halting of all ethanol plant building, including some projects in mid-construction. All of this occurred while the VEETC was in the middle of its 6-year effective term, and the RFS was being increased to its 36 billion gallon goal.

The reduction of the VEETC in 2008 does correspond with reductions in the numbers of plants constructed and stock values. A change of $0.06/gallon in the credit reduces profit to a 100 million gallon plant by $6 million annually, so this change was definitely felt by producers. By that time, however, corn feedstock prices had hit an all-time high, oil prices had crashed, and a recession was hitting the U.S. economy. These forces impacted the industry much more than changes to the federal incentives packages could help. On the other hand, the fact that the industry is still alive today is probably due in part to those support mechanisms.

Going Forward

Does this show that ethanol companies and the investors who fund plant construction were more interested in the guaranteed market for their product resulting from the RFS, rather than increases in profit from the tax credit? Or are subsidies, while easy to point to, insignificant in the face of the much larger economic forces that really determine the health of the industry (general economic and investment climate, crush spread, etc)?

It is impossible to argue that the VEETC did not help spur investment into the ethanol area, and equally as difficult to argue that it isn't helping the industry through the bad times. It is not a perfect incentive, however. The purpose of the VEETC was to equalize the cost of ethanol with gasoline, but at times it has not been enough to help the producers, and at other times bonus profit on top of an already profitable product. Creating a guaranteed market for ethanol through mandated volumes of use, via RFS1 and RFS2, seems have a much greater effect on the industry at a much lower cost. Mandated use stabilizes the market, and still allows for the most efficient, low-cost producers to rise to the top.

A bill for renewing the VEETC and Small Ethanol Producer Tax Credit has been proposed in the House and Senate. Cattle and dairy groups have raised opposition to the measure, not interested in supporting their competition for corn any longer. Many groups feel the ethanol industry, at least the corn-based subset of the industry, has matured and should not need further subsidization in the form of tax credits.

With the biofuels industry mired in a worse rut than the overall U.S. economy, government efforts to help the industry should not be cut. However, alternative incentive schemes need to be devised that provide more bang for the taxpayer buck. Systems including grants and loan guarantees for the construction of plants using second-generation feedstocks, a blending equalization scheme recently proposed in Biofuels Digest, and a new tax-and-tariff system proposed by researchers at Iowa State University and the USDA are all being discussed. With the current subsidy set to expire, now is the best time to explore better and more effective support schemes for the U.S. biofuels industry.

Jeff Coombe has been in the renewable energy and environmental science field for 7 years, including experience developing ethanol and biodiesel production facilities, project management for end use vehicle fleet conversions to alternative fuels, and environmental protection management. He is an active member of the Colorado Governor’s Biofuels Coalition steering committee, and has presented research findings at conferences including the International Algae Congress (Amsterdam, Netherlands), the Advanced Biofuels Workshop (Portland, Oregon), and the Colorado Renewable Energy Conference (Pueblo, Colorado). Strengths include data acquisition and analysis, emerging feedstock and production technologies, and inter-industry relations. Mr. Coombe is currently seeking a project development position with a company local to the Denver, CO area. Click here to view his resume and biography.

Audacity Portable 1.3.12: 'Version' to carry 'Audacity, one of the best free audio editors


Audio Editors/Recorders





Fully functioning version of Audacity Portable 1.3.12, specifically optimized for operation from USB-stick. The program needs no installation, so that could work directly from the media. Suitable option if you must use an international or business computer. Apart from the USB-device, Audacity Portable 1.3.12 works from CD, Flash-card or MP3-player.


Audacity Portable 1.3.12 e audioredaktor which handles all major audio formats - MP3, Ogg / Vorbis, WAV, MIDI, AIFF. The program can mixing to remove noise, or to change playback speed of a song. Owns and built-in sound recording in real time. You can expand the available effects through extensions (plugins).

Audacity Portable 1.3.12 is a tool that lets you record, edit and manipulate digital audio files in various formats. Portable Audacity only too well you can carry with you on your USB drive.

In addition to creating your own recordings from individual files by adding multiple effects, you can import audio files in WAV, AIFF, AU, MP3, etc.

Audacity Portable 1.3.12 supports basic editing commands (cut, copy, paste, undo), mix songs, and includes a range editor, a spectrogram and a frequency analyzer implemented.

Size: 10.8 MB
Publisher: Visit Website
Release Date: 2010-6-19
OS: Win 9x/ME/2K/NT/XP/Vista
Download Software

“Ununseptium” Unsur Baru Dengan Nomor Atom 117 Telah Diciptakan

Tim peneliti yang merupakan gabungan dari ilmuwan Amerika dan Rusia yang bekerja di Laboratorium “Flerov Laboratory of Nuclear Reaction” di Dubna, 120 Km dari arah utara kota Moscow, telah berhasil menciptakan unsur super berat (unsur dengan nomor atom lebih dari 92) dengan nomor atom 117 yang dihasilkan dari reaksi salah satu isotop kalsium dengan unsur radioaktif berkelium, seperti yang telah dilaporkan dalam “Physical Chemistry Letters” pada April 2010.

DarkWave Studio 3.0.6: Virtual Sound Studio to compose your own music

Audio Editors/Recorders



DarkWave Studio 3.0.6 is a publisher of real-time sound that is organized into several tabs. The main contains a virtual sound studio where they can add modules with the right mouse bot ion.

In addition to supporting VST and ASIO plugins, DarkWave Studio 3.0.6 includes eight modules, such as a MIDI input, a mixer, or a percussion synthesizer. Everyone can connect with virtual wiring dragging the mouse from the links below.

Pattern Tab Editor is a pattern in which you can modify the sound using control messages. DarkWave Studio 3.0.6 also has a multi-track sequencer very easy to use. Finally, the tab HD Recorder will record audio in real time within the project and save it as WAV files.

With a very low resource consumption, a sleek interface and a range of functions than enough, DarkWave Studio 3.0.6 will help you compose music with ease.

Size: 2.43 MB
Publisher: Visit Website
Release Date: 2009-7-15
OS: Win 9x/ME/2K/NT/XP/Vista



Dowlnload Software

14 July 2010

Sifat Koligatif Larutan

Sumber : Chemistry.org

Gambaran umum sifat koligatif
Gambaran umum sifat koligatif
Sifat  koligatif  larutan  adalah  sifat  larutan  yang  tidak tergantung pada macamnya zat terlarut tetapi semata-mata hanya ditentukan oleh banyaknya zat terlarut (konsentrasi zat terlarut).
Apabila suatu pelarut ditambah dengan sedikit zat terlarut (Gambar 6.2), maka akan didapat suatu larutan yang mengalami:
  1. Penurunan tekanan uap jenuh
  2. Kenaikan titik didih
  3. Penurunan titik beku
  4. Tekanan osmosis
Banyaknya partikel dalam larutan ditentukan oleh konsentrasi larutan dan sifat Larutan itu sendiri. Jumlah partikel dalam larutan non elektrolit tidak sama dengan jumlah partikel dalam larutan elektrolit, walaupun konsentrasi keduanya sama. Hal ini dikarenakan larutan elektrolit terurai menjadi ion-ionnya, sedangkan larutan non elektrolit tidak terurai menjadi ion-ion. Dengan demikian sifat koligatif larutan dibedakan atas sifat koligatif larutan non elektrolit dan sifat koligatif larutan elektrolit.

Penurunan Tekanan Uap Jenuh

Pada  setiap  suhu,  zat  cair  selalu  mempunyai  tekanan tertentu. Tekanan ini adalah tekanan uap jenuhnya pada suhu tertentu. Penambahan suatu zat ke dalam zat cair menyebabkan penurunan tekanan uapnya. Hal ini disebabkan karena zat terlarut itu mengurangi bagian atau fraksi dari pelarut, sehingga kecepatan penguapan berkurang.

Gambaran penurunan tekanan uap
Gambaran penurunan tekanan uap
Menurut Roult :
p = po . XB
keterangan:
p     : tekanan uap jenuh larutan
po  : tekanan uap jenuh pelarut murni
XB  : fraksi mol pelarut
Karena XA + XB = 1, maka persamaan di atas dapat diperluas menjadi :
P = Po (1 – XA)
P = Po – Po . XA
Po – P = Po . XA
Sehingga :
ΔP = po . XA
keterangan:
ΔP   : penuruman tekanan uap jenuh pelarut
po    : tekanan uap pelarut murni
XA   : fraksi mol zat terlarut
Contoh :
Hitunglah penurunan tekanan uap jenuh air, bila 45 gram glukosa (Mr = 180) dilarutkan dalam 90 gram air ! Diketahui tekanan uap jenuh air murni pada 20oC adalah 18 mmHg.
rm

Kenaikan Titik Didih

Adanya penurunan tekanan uap jenuh mengakibatkan titik didih larutan lebih tinggi dari titik didih pelarut murni. Untuk larutan non elektrolit kenaikan titik didih dinyatakan dengan:
ΔTb = m . Kb
keterangan:
ΔTb = kenaikan titik didih (oC)
m      = molalitas larutan
Kb = tetapan kenaikan titik didihmolal
rm19
(W menyatakan massa zat terlarut), maka kenaikan titik didih larutan dapat dinayatakan sebagai:
rm210
Apabila pelarutnya air dan tekanan udara 1 atm, maka titik didih larutan dinyatakan sebagai :
Tb = (100 + ΔTb) oC

Penurunan Titik Beku

Untuk penurunan titik beku persamaannya dinyatakan sebagai:
rm37
ΔTf = penurunan titik beku
m     = molalitas larutan
Kf     = tetapan penurunan titik beku molal
W     = massa zat terlarut
Mr   = massa molekul relatif zat terlarut
p      = massa pelarut
Apabila pelarutnya air dan tekanan udara 1 atm, maka titik beku larutannya dinyatakan sebagai:
Tf = (O – ΔTf)oC

Tekanan Osmosis

Tekanan osmosis adalah tekanan yang diberikan pada larutan yang dapat menghentikan perpindahan molekul-molekul pelarut ke dalam larutan melalui membran semi permeabel (proses osmosis) seperti ditunjukkan pada.
Menurut Van’t hoff tekanan osmosis mengikuti hukum gas ideal:
PV = nRT
Karena tekanan osmosis = Π , maka :
rm48
π° = tekanan osmosis (atmosfir)
C   = konsentrasi larutan (M)
R   = tetapan gas universal.  = 0,082 L.atm/mol K
T   = suhu mutlak (K)

Tekanan osmosis
Tekanan osmosis
  • Larutan yang mempunyai tekanan osmosis lebih rendah dari yang lain disebut larutan Hipotonis.
  • Larutan yang mempunyai tekanan lebih tinggi dari yang lain disebut larutan Hipertonis.
  • Larutan yang mempunyai tekanan osmosis sama disebut Isotonis.
Seperti yang telah dijelaskan sebelumnya bahwa larutan elektrolit  di  dalam  pelarutnya  mempunyai  kemampuan  untuk mengion. Hal ini mengakibatkan larutan elektrolit mempunyai jumlah partikel yang lebih banyak daripada larutan non elektrolit pada konsentrasi yang sama.
Contoh :
Larutan 0.5 molal glukosa dibandingkan dengan iarutan 0.5 molal garam dapur.
  • Untuk larutan glukosa dalam air jumlah partikel (konsentrasinya) tetap, yaitu 0.5 molal.
  • Untuk larutan garam dapur: NaCl(aq) → Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq) karena terurai menjadi 2 ion, maka konsentrasi partikelnya menjadi 2 kali semula = 1.0 molal.
Yang menjadi ukuran langsung dari keadaan (kemampuannya) untuk mengion adalah derajat ionisasi. Besarnya derajat ionisasi ini dinyatakan sebagai :
α° = jumlah mol zat yang terionisasi/jumlah mol zat mula-mula
Untuk larutan elektrolit kuat, harga derajat ionisasinya mendekati 1, sedangkan untuk elektrolit lemah, harganya berada di antara 0 dan 1 (0 < α < 1). Atas dasar kemampuan ini, maka larutan elektrolit mempunyai pengembangan di dalam perumusan sifat koligatifnya.
  • Untuk Kenaikan Titik Didih dinyatakan sebagai :
rm54
n menyatakan jumlah ion dari larutan elektrolitnya.
  • Untuk Penurunan Titik Beku dinyatakan sebagai :
rm64
  • Untuk Tekanan Osmosis dinyatakan sebagai :
π°  = C R T [1+ α(n-1)]
Contoh :
Hitunglah kenaikan titik didih dan penurunan titik beku dari larutan5.85 gram garam dapur (Mr = 58.5) dalam 250 gram air ! (untuk air, Kb= 0.52 dan Kf= 1.86)
Jawab :
Larutan garam dapur,
rm73
Catatan:
Jika di dalam soal tidak diberi keterangan mengenai harga derajat ionisasi, tetapi kita mengetahui bahwa larutannya tergolong elektrolit kuat, maka harga derajat ionisasinya dianggap 1.

How to Convert Wastepaper Into Ethanol

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By an eHow Contributing Writer

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Ethanol may one day provide a practical alternative to gasoline. There are many sources for this fuel, including one that doesn't receive much publicity. Conversion into ethanol can take the "waste" out of wastepaper.

Instructions

Step 1
Add non-grain plant sources, such as scraps of wastepaper (which originate from wood pulp) to remnants of feedstock, grass clippings and weeds. Convert the resulting biomass mixture into cellulosic ethanol. Add the paper to equal amounts of organic materials. You will yield an approximate rate of 340 liters to a ton of the added fiber.

Step 2
Use a wide variety of normally thrown away products such as leftover brewer's, paper towels and other scrap paper to make biofuel alternatives to gasoline. Such is the hopes of Zymetis, an incubator company in Maryland.

Step 3
Generate steam, which results in electricity, with the cooking and alcohol production of this product in a still-like process. Of course, scientists have not revealed the exact "recipe" for cellulosic ethanol.

Step 4
Break down trash products into sugars and eventually alcohol. Use an enzyme, such as Saccharophagus degradans, found by the University of Maryland. This enzyme has been reproduced in labs and used by Zymetis to accomplish this task. At this time, the enzymes are still in the trial stages.

Tips & Warnings


  • The University of Maryland found the newest enzyme in the search for new fuel production (Saccharophagus degradans) in the Chesapeake Bay.


  • Using ethanol is different from using normal gasoline in your vehicle. The gas mileage will not be as much because there is 1/3 less energy per gallon.


13 July 2010

Bim Salabim, Limbah Plastik disulap menjadi Bensin

Pemerintah Daerah Samarinda baru-baru ini meninjau kerjasama dengan perusahaan dari Malaysia untuk mengembangkan pengolahan sampah menjadi Bensin dan Solar (BBM).

Terobosan Pengolahan sampah menjadi BBM ini baru dalam tahap uji kelayakan, belum ada perjanjian yang mengikat. Seandainya uji kelayakan itu cocok maka Pemerintah Daerah Samarinda akan segera membuat perjanjian atau MOU dengan perusahaan asal Malaysia tersebut dan segera mungkin membangun pabrik pengolahan sampah menjadi BBM.

Menurut Kepala Dinas Kebersihan dan Pertamanan Samarinda, Marwansyah, jumlah sampah di Samarinda rata-rata 1.200 meter kubik perhari. Sampah itu terdiri dari sampah basah dan kering, keduanya akan dipisahkan karena yang akan dibuat Bensin adalah sampah plastik. Dikutip dari Vivanews

Sedangkan untuk pembuatan BBM dari sampah plastik itu adalah dengan cara mengolah dan memanaskan plastik hingga suhu 450 derajat celcius dengan alat Recycle Oil Machine.

BBM yang dihasilkan dari pengolahan sampah plastik ini terdiri dari 60% Solar dan 40% Bensin. Namun untuk Bensin kualitasnya belum bagus sedangkan Solar kualitasnya lebih bagus dari solar dari bahan lain. Bahkan di Korea Solar ini sudah digunakan untuk kendaraan.

Pengolahan Sampah Plastik menjadi BBM ini sangat membantu permasalahan sampah yang kini semakin hari semakin banyak. Semoga Kota Samarinda bisa menjadi contoh bagi kota-kota lain yang katanya sering mengeluhkan sampah yang semakin banyak.

11 July 2010

Winamp 5,581 Lite Build 2985

Winamp 5,581 Lite Build 2985 adalah player yang sangat bagus untuk pemutaran file multimedia. Program ini memiliki fungsi ganda - media library untuk mengatur lagu, playlist pilihan, kemampuan mengubah tampilan, maupunmodul tambahan. Yang jelas akan membuat kita mendengarkan musik menjadi lebih menyenangkan.

Winamp 5,581 Lite Build 2985 mendukung banyak format file. Selain format audio seperti - mp3, wav, au, wma, midi, dll juga mendukung format video - MPEG, AVI, ASF, WMV dan lain-lain. Memungkinkan Anda untuk mengakses musik anda melalui browser web. Ada banyak plugin di dalamnya.

Winamp 5,581 Lite Build 2985 merupakan solusi yang baik untuk melihat, menyortir, dengan kapasitas besar dan beragam koleksi audio dan video.

Selama bertahun-tahun, dan Winamp 5,581 Lite Build 2985 versi media player, salah satu yang paling populer di dunia, telah berubah dari pemutar musik yang sederhana ke sistem pemutaran multimedia penuh. Semua perbaikan ini telah mendapatkan kemampuan yang lebih besar, sehingga akan menggunakan lebih banyak pada hard drive Anda.

Winamp 5,581 Lite Build 2985 jauh lebih ringan.
Ukuran: 6,74 MB

10 July 2010

Pipe Flow Expert - Get 15% Off plus an EXTRA 2nd license (worth £1295)



Visit www.pipeflow.co.uk today and enter the promotion code 257241 before clicking on 'Checkout' to get 15% off, and get an EXTRA second license when you also buy Annual Support!

This opportunity expires on July 25th 2010 so take action now!

Don't miss this one-time chance to save on Pipe Flow Expert licensing, plus
GET AN EXTRA SECOND LICENSE worth £1295 (approx $2000 USD)
when you buy PipeFlow Expert and Annual Support together.

Professional 'Fluid Flow' engineers choose Pipe Flow Expert because they want a program that will provide instant and accurate results, is easy-to-use and which they will be able to use immediately.


Pipe Flow Expert 2010 v5.12 Major Update

This is the new 2010 release of our premier application for designing and analyzing pipe systems. Easily visualize and calculate the flows and pressures at all points in your pipe system.




Version 5.12 is a major release that includes the following updates:

    a) Amazing PDF Report Generation, with customized data selections
    b) Support for Cv and Kv Flow Coefficients modeling
    c) Enlarged Drawing Area for large scale systems
    d) Enhanced Pipe Database with 15 new schedules & 180 new rows of data
    e) Larger Fluid Database with over 400 fluid data points
    f) Increased ease-of-use and productivity enhancements

General features also include:
  • Isometric 3D Drawing capabilities with smart labels and 3D symbols
  • An Enhanced Calculation Engine that will solve complex piping designs
  • An Intuitive User Interface that is best-in-class & easy to use
  • Modeling of up to 1000 nodes and 1000 pipes.
  • A Fluid Database with common liquid and gas data
  • A Pipe Database with common pipe materials and sizes
  • A Fittings Database with common valve and fitting data
Try Pipe Flow Expert 2010
Click on the following download link and then
Choose 'Run' to automatically install the program.

Download Pipe Flow Expert 2010 Version 5.12
Get a second license code (at no extra charge) when you purchase PipeFlow Expert plus Annual Support on or before July 25th 2010.

Simply Buy your first PipeFlow Expert license (Single User via download) and Buy Annual Support and then email us at info@pipeflow.co.uk with your purchase token and we will email back a second license code (worth £1295).

Note: Purchases of PipeFlow Expert on USB are still eligible for the discount however the USB version already comes with a 2nd license for a downloaded copy, so we do not provide a further download license in this case but you will still save money.

This opportunity is limited to selected individuals & organizations, and is
available until 25th July 2010.

All purchases come with a 30 day refund guarantee - we only want happy customers and we're confident that our Pipe Flow Expert program provides exceptional value - see what our existing users think: Genuine Testimonials


Kind Regards

David Gardiner
PipeFlow.co.uk

TimeChimes Automatic School Bell and other Sound Playing System

Play sounds at pre-scheduled times

Download the 
free TimeChimes Automatic School Bell and other Sound Playing System

Download TimeChimes Purchase TimeChimes
TimeChimes is a software application that will play a sound or sounds at pre-scheduled times of day on each day of the week. Typically, TimeChimes can used to play school or church bells or shift-time sounds in factories or businesses. It can also be used for other applications where you want a sound to play at preset times. You don't need to purchase and it only takes a couple of minutes to complete the process (click here to install).




More Screenshots >>>
 
Features
  • Plays bells, chimes or any other sounds at preset times.
  • Schedule times for automatic play on each day of the week (or weeks on a dual week cycle).
  • The current day's play times can easily be changed if required.
  • Includes 9 pre-recorded bell type sounds.
  • Other sounds can be loaded as wav and mp3 formats.
  • Automatically runs on startup or runs as a service (before logon)
  • Easy to use for day to day operation.
System Requirements
  • Works on Windows XP 2000/2003/Vista/2008 and Windows 7
  • For earlier Windows versions (98, ME) please click here
  • A sound card.
Note: TimeChimes does not need a dedicated computer. TimeChimes can run in the background on a computer which you can continue to use for other tasks. TimeChimes will run on the Tray of the Task Bar and play automatically even if you are doing something else.
Download TimeChimes
The software can be downloaded by clicking on the following link. Once downloading is complete, run the file tcsetup.exe. The setup file will automatically install the software. The complete manual is included. Once you have run the setup file, select the Help menu item for a guide to using TimeChimes.
More Information...

Bel Pelajaran Sekolah Otomatis

Setiap menjelang awal tahun pelajaran baru, semua warga sekolah senantiasa mempersiapkan diri untuk mengawali tahun pelajaran baru dengan sebaik-baiknya. Termasuk kami yang berkecimpung dalam bidang kurikulum sekolah tak mau ketinggalan.
Salah satu permasalahan yang masih sering dialami sekolah dalam hal kegiatan belajar mengajar adalah tanda waktu pelajaran. Sepintas tampak sepele, tetapi jika tidak dicarikan solusinya hal satu ini ternyata dapat menghambat proses KBM di sekolah.
Umumnya di sekolah-sekolah sampai saat ini masih menggunakan cara konvensional dan manual. Artinya menggunakan bel manual atau bel listrik yang memerlukan petuggaas khusus. Apabila dalam kondisi normal, memang tidak menimbulkan masalah. Tetapi jika pada kondisi khusus, banyak masalah yang terjadi.
Saat ini jaman sudah maju, segalanya serba komputerisasi dan otomatis, maka tidak ada salahnya jika tanda bel pelajaran di sekolah diganti dengan bel pelajaran otomatis.
Dalam tulisan ini kami berikan contoh penggunaan bel otomatis yang sudah 3 tahun kami gunakan di sekolah kami. Software ini cukup simple dan praktis penggunaannya. Nada-nada dapat kita ganti menggunakan sound atau musik *.wav atau *.mp3. Silahkan download gratis.










08 July 2010

Akhirnya Luna Maya dan Cut Tari Jadi Tersangka


VIVAnews - Polisi akhirnya menetapkan artis Luna Maya dan Cut Tari menjadi tersangka. Penetapan ini sehari setelah permintaan maaf keduanya kepada publik di media.

"Iya, itu setelah kita mengkaji pasal-pasal," kata Kepala Badan Reserse dan Kriminal Polri Komisaris Jenderal Ito Sumardi saat dihubungi, Jumat 9 Juli 2010.

Kendati demikian, Ito tidak menyebut jelas sejak kapan status tersangka itu ditetapkan. Yang pasti, menurut Ito, peningkatan status itu sudah berdasarkan pengumpulan bukti dan pemeriksaan yang sudah dilakukan.

"Ditetapkan setelah melakukan uji fisik terhadap keduanya," ujar mantan Kapolda Riau ini.

Menurut Ito, kedua artis itu dijerat dengan Pasal 282 Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Pidana. Polisi sebelum ini sudah menetapkan Ariel sebagai tersangka.

Vokalis Peterpan itu dijerat dengan pasal berlapis. Pertama, Ariel dijerat dengan Pasal 4 UU Pornografi. Sangkaan kedua, Ariel diduga telah melanggar ketentuan dalam Pasal 27 UU Informatika dan Transaksi Elektronik dan dia juga dijerat dengan Pasal 282 Kitab Undang-undang Hukum Pidana. (sj)

Reaktor Membran untuk Reforming Metanol

Sumber : Majari

Reaktor membran adalah sistem reaktor baru yang mengkombinasikan pemisahan dengan membran dan reaksi kimia. Reaktor membran memiliki dua tipe, yaitu reaktor membran packed-bed dan reaktor membran katalitik. Reaktor membran dengan katalis packed-bed memiliki area pemisahan yang terpisah dari area reaksi, sedangkan pada reaktor membran katalitik, reaksi dan pemisahan terjadi secara simultan. Membran dalam reaktor ini merupakan penghalang yang hanya dapat melewatkan komponen tertentu. Selektivitas pada membran ini dikontrol oleh ukuran diameter pori membran.


Membran Reaktor

Pada reaktor membran, kombinasi reaksi dan pemisahan dilakukan untuk meningkatkan konversi. Salah satu produk hasil reaksi dipisahkan dari reaktor melalui membran. Hal ini akan menyebabkan kesetimbangan reaksi bergerak ke kanan (menurut Prinsip Le Chatelier), sehingga produk yang dihasilkan semakin banyak.

Membran reaktor banyak digunakan pada reaksi dehidrogenasi (misalnya reaksi dehidrogenasi etana). Pada reaksi ini, hanya salah satu produk, yaitu hidrogen, yang cukup kecil sehingga dapat melewati membran. Hasilnya, desain yang lebih padat dan konversi yang semakin tinggi membuat reaktor tipe ini menunjukkan proses yang lebih efisien. Pemisahan produk akan meningkatkan waktu tinggal untuk volume reaktor yang digunakan sehingga membawa reaksi yang terbatas pada kesetimbangan semakin mendekati penyelesaian reaksi.

Keuntungan yang lebih jauh lagi, reaktor membran dapat meningkatkan rentang temperatur dan tekanan yang diperbolehkan untuk reaksi. Reaktor membran secara fundamental mengubah ketergantungan konversi reaksi dekomposisi fasa gas terhadap tekanan sehingga reaksi lebih disukai jika dilakukan pada tekanan tinggi daripada tekanan rendah. Kondisi tekanan tinggi akan membutuhkan ukuran reaktor yang lebih kecil dan pemurnian yang lebih efisien. Reaktor membran juga berguna bagi reaksi endotermik dan eksotermik yang berurut, dengan menggunakan ekstraksi produk untuk meningkatkan perpindahan panas. Hasilnya adalah reaktor yang lebih kecil, biaya yang lebih rendah, dan reaksi samping yang lebih sedikit.

Salah satu penerapan reaktor membran adalah reaksi reforming metanol yang dapat digunakan sebagai sumber hidrogen untuk fuel cell. Reaksi yang terjadi adalah:


CH3OH + H2O –>3H2 + CO2 (1)

Reaksi ini dapat dimodelkan oleh dua tahap reaksi: reaksi perengkahan endotermik irreversible, dimana satu mol metanol dikonversi menjadi tiga mol produk:


CH3OH –>2H2 + CO (2)

dan diikuti oleh water gas shift reaction,


CO + H2O –> H2 + CO2 (3)

yang merupakan reaksi eksotermik dan terbatas pada kesetimbangan.

Kedua reaksi ini biasanya dilakukan pada reaktor aliran sumbat menggunakan katalis tembaga-seng oksida dan diikuti oleh reaksi pemurnian, yaitu oksidasi parsial untuk memisahkan CO yang tak bereaksi. Tanpa reaktor membran, persyaratan kondisi pemanasan dan tekanan pada proses ini menjadi sulit, karena memerlukan reaktor yang besar dan daerah pemanasan yang signifikan. Jika mungkin, reaksi 2 akan berlangsung pada tekanan dan temperatur tinggi untuk mempercepat reaksi dan meningkatkan penggunaan katalis. Selain itu, karena reaksi ini sangat endotermik, temperatur yang digunakan harus sangat tinggi dan panas harus diberikan sepanjang reaktor.


Reaktor Membran untuk Konversi Methanol

Secara kontras, temperatur dan tekanan yang rendah justru dibutuhkan untuk menjalankan reaksi 3 karena reaksi ini bersifat eksotermik. Panas harus dihilangkan antara tahap ini dan tahap akhir, atau di sepanjang reaktor pada bagian reaksi ini. Reaksi seperti ini umumnya menggunakan pemanas internal untuk reaksi 2 dan tiga alat penukar panas eksternal yang memanaskan umpan dan menghasilkan pendinginan antar tahap pada reaksi 3. Tekanan rendah yang digunakan untuk menjalankan reaksi 3 menyebabkan kedua reaksi harus dilaksanakan pada tekanan rendah, di bawah 100 psi. Akibatnya, reaktor yang digunakan menjadi lebih besar daripada reaktor pada kondisi tekanan tinggi. Secara otomatis, biaya peralatan pun meningkat.

Salah satu reaktor membran yang sedang diteliti untuk digunakan pada reaksi konversi metanol ditunjukkan oleh gambar di samping kanan ini. Metanol dan air masuk melalui bagian bawah annulus luar dan diuapkan menggunakan panas yang didapat dari pendinginan produk hidrogen dan shift reaction. Uap ini akan bergerak ke bagian atas. Pemanasan lebih lanjut pada reformer dilakukan dengan pembakaran gas rafinat.

Beberapa inci pertama dalam reaktor tersebut merupakan area dekomposisi, yaitu area saat metanol dikonversi menjadi CO dan H2 dengan reaksi 2. Reaksi ini diikuti oleh daerah tempat terjadinya reaksi water-gas shift. Seperti yang sudah disebutkan, pemisahan hidrogen membantu melaksanakan reaksi pada tekanan tinggi dengan menjaga tekanan parsial hidrogen di bawah tekanan parsial karbon monoksida dan air. Pembakaran gas buangan juga meningkatkan efisiensi keseluruhan saat memisahkan sisa CO. Dengan membran yang sesuai, unit ini akan menghasilkan hidrogen yang lebih murni daripada hidrogen yang dihasilkan oleh oksidasi parsial.


Sumber:
1. Robert Buxbaum: Membrane Reactors, Fundamental and Commercial Advantages, e.g For Methanol Reforming.
2. Tatang H. Soerawidjaja: Slide kuliah Sel Tunam
3. http://www.engin.umich.edu

Asahi Newspaper and Panasonic Collaborate in Transportation Using Low-Emission Vehicles

The Asahi Shimbun Company, a major Japanese newspaper company, and Panasonic Corp., a major electronic product manufacturer, began joint transportation with the aim of shortening deadhead travel distance and to reduce environmental impacts by using low-emission vehicles on April 19, 2010.

Through this initiative, the trucks that transport the morning papers from the printing facility in Kanagawa Prefecture to delivery agents in Shizuoka Prefecture will carry Panasonic's products on their way back. Panasonic sends out repaired products and replacement parts to Kanagawa Prefecture and the Tokyo area from its Shizuoka facility, where it manufactures mobile phones. In this way, the trucks that transport newspapers are used again instead of running empty.

Asahi has been using medium-sized trucks that run on Compressed Natural Gas (CNG) since 2001 for transportation of newspapers from Tokyo and Kanagawa to Shizuoka area. In 2007, it introduced biodiesel trucks that run on fuel derived from waste cooking oil.

With the increased efficiency achieved by joint transportation together with the reduction of 17,490 kilometers of deadhead travel distance, carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions are expected to be reduced by 51 tons annually. In addition, by using CNG and biodiesel trucks, a further 20-ton reduction in CO2 emissions is expected, as compared to using ordinary diesel trucks. Thus, as a result of these initiatives, annual CO2 emissions will be reduced by a total of 71 tons.

Panasonic and Tomy Collaborate in Transportation with CNG-Powered Trucks (Related JFS article)
http://www.japanfs.org/en/pages/029686.html
Panasonic global site
http://panasonic.net/

05 July 2010

Pengumuman PLPG Sertifikasi Guru 2010 Rayon 13

Sebanyak 720 Guru akan mengikuti PLPG , yang akan dilaksanakan mulai :

Hari/ Tanggal : Senin, 5 Juli 2010
Waktu : Pukul 07.00 WIB -Selesai
Tempat : Auditorium UNS Solo
Adapun daftar peserta dapat anda dowload di sini

Notepad + + 5.7 Final: Complete and efficient code editor



Screen shot Notepad + + 5.7 Final
Notepad + + 5.7 Final is a source editor open source, supports syntax highlighting for the following languages: C, C + +, Java, XML, HTML, PHP, Java Script, RC resource file, makefile, ASCII art file (Extension. nfo), doxygen, ini file, ASP, VB / VBS, SQL, Objective-C, CSS, Pascal, Perl and Python. Is written in C + +, has a beautiful interface predisposing to work, there is full support for Drag'N'Drop.

Some key features of Notepad + + 5.7 Final are: color of programming languages and arrangement in rows, WYSIWYG, user specified color of programming languages, automatic completion of words, simultaneous work with several documents, a review of several documents simultaneously support search / Replace expressed full support of Drag 'N' Drop (drag and drop), dynamic position reviews automatically detect the status of files, increasing and decreasing the scale work in a multilingual environment, bookmarks, coloring brackets and leading lines, recording and playback of macros, and others.
The Windows notebook, also known by its English name as notepad, is a perfect substitute. This is Notepad + + 5.7 Final, a full text editor that is specially meant for developers.
The code editor supports the programming languages used: PHP, C / C + +, C #, Java, HTML, XML, Pascal, Python, CSS, Javascript, Fortran, MATLAB, COBOL, Verilog, ..., and other many more. It also provides functions that greatly facilitate the development of applications such as word autocompletion, searching files, the recording / running macros or auto indent.
Among the options that we can change include: the choice of visual styles, the selection of format type and encoding of the file and performing backups.
One of the main advantages that account Notepad + + 5.7 Final is its low resource consumption. This, coupled with its extensive range of settings, make it a very appropriate editor for writing short texts for the development of applications.
Size: 28.03 MB
Publisher: Visit Website
Release Date: 2010-7-5
OS: Win 9x/ME/2K/NT/XP/Vista