About Chemistry, Environment, Waste Management and Green Life Inspirations

29 January 2010

Japanese Municipalities Targeting Energy Self-Sufficiency at Sewage Treatment Plants

JFS/Morigasaki
Copyright Bureau of Sewerage Tokyo Metropolitan Government

Introduction

Sewerage systems play an important role in keeping modern life comfortable and hygienic, as they collect and treat the wastewater and human waste discharged in the course of daily life and industrial activities. They are also effective in protecting cities and towns from floods by draining rainwater off quickly, as well as preserving our ecosystems by releasing clean, treated water to back to rivers, lakes, and seas.

New Japanese Wind Turbine Allows Small-scale Users to Sell Electricity to Power Companies

Zephyr Corporation Inc., a Japanese manufacturer of small-scale renewable power generation systems, on February 20, 2008, began marketing three models of its new Owl series, its latest line of wind power and wind/solar hybrid power generation systems designed for households, schools, and office buildings.

All three models of the Owl series have an Internet server pre-installed as standard equipment to provide a remote monitoring function via the Internet to check and record the amount of electricity generated and carbon dioxide (CO2) emissions avoided -- a world first. The equipment also enables the sale of any excess electricity generated to the grid of power companies -- another world first in the small-sized wind power market. Moreover, it has a panel that displays information on weather conditions, the amount of electricity generated, and how much CO2 emissions have been avoided.

The Owl Express model is a wind or combined wind and solar hybrid power generation system for households, schools, or office buildings, which includes all the equipment needed to sell and transmit any excess electricity generated to power companies. Owl Next is a wind and solar hybrid system designed as an independent power source for schools. With enhanced data collection and display functions, it also helps provide students with practical education on climate change and renewable energy. Owl Plus is a more basic wind and solar hybrid system designed especially for first-time users, including households, to begin enjoying the benefits of renewable energy right away.

http://www.zephyreco.co.jp/en/
http://www.japanfs.org/en/jfs/event/eco-pro2006/report2006_zephyr.html
- Japan's Market for Small Wind Power Systems Growing Rapidly (Related JFS article)
http://www.japanfs.org/db/1174-e

27 January 2010

Mosquito control with Bioinsektisida


So far for controlling Aedes aegypti mosquito and Anopheles, there are still many people who use chemicals (insecticide). In fact, it's not environmentally friendly and had no indication of resistance of mosquitoes Aedes aegypti and Anopheles in various places on certain types of insecticides.

"To Aedes aegypti is a tendency organofosfat tolerant of compounds," said Head of Research Center of Disease Vectors and Reservoir, Ministry of Health, Dr MS Damar Tri Boewono in Republika. This is Organofosfat chemicals to control mosquitoes and larva. For this reason, he continued, the Research Center of Disease Vectors Reservoir bioinsektisida efficacy test Bacillus thuringiensis and Bacillus sphaericus against mosquito larvae of malaria vectors and dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF). "The result was good enough," said Rosin.

Research carried out is an oasis (as much as a cotton buds) from cultured spores of Bacillus thuringiensis inserted into the coconut water. Coconut intact opened slightly. Having entered the spores then closed again. After one week left in the coconut, Bacillus sphaericus and Bacillus thurigiensis is already a lot, obviously the laboratory Damar already recommended by the WHO (World Health Organization) for testing insecticides that will be performed by a program or households.

He further said that if the target of bioinsektisida is the Anopheles mosquito larvae, the spores must be floating. Conversely, if the target Aedes aegypti mosquito larvae spores must then be at the bottom. Now, bioinsektisida is already used by Newmont and Freeport. Thus, Damar said, when bioinsektisida will be used to control the Anopheles larva and Aedes aegypti, the material must be designed as such in accordance with the behavior of the mosquito larva is. He admitted that bioinsektisida is safe, no side effects, and environmentally friendly.

According to him, never existed in the public demonstration to prove the security bioinsektisida. Way, bioinsektisida incorporated into drinking water, then drink. Proved that people who drink do not die, he explained. In another part he says with organofosfat mosquito control can still be, but should increase the dose. Thus the cost is more expensive and resistance will be higher. "If I am telling the truth from the farm, this organofosfat more toxic to the soil," said Rosin.

Once insekstisda material goes into the ground, he will carry the rain water and will be collected in one place. Mosquitoes will breed there and will adapt to the environment so that the resistance will emerge. Both these spores, he explained, was sold in the market. These spores must be stored in a cool place so as not to die.

Source: Republika (December 11, 2004)

25 January 2010

Education Expert : Certification of Teacher is False, Should be Terminated


Source :
http://www.republika.co.id/berita/102219/pakar_pendidikan_sertifikasi_keliru_seharusnya_dihentikan

BANDUNG - Certification of teachers who do not have an impact on improving teaching quality of teachers, it was predicted by education experts before the program was in effect. One expert who has already stated it is an expert on education of Indonesian Education University (UPI) Bandung, Said Hamid Hasan.

According to Said, from the beginning he has made the certification will have no impact on improving kualiatas. Certification''that the concept was wrong and just spend the money,''said Said told Republika, Tuesday (12 / 1).

Said assess what the actual certified by the government in the field was owned by the teacher. Because, it is sertikasi portfolio recognition capabilities already possessed a teacher. Teachers who teach, already has a certificate to teach but must have the certificate again.

''The concept of certification were wrong when associated increase kualiatas. Certification is stopped it. The teachers had no teaching certificate,''said Said.

If the government wants teachers in Indonesia have a certain capability, Said continued, do not need associated with the certification. Instead, teachers are given training. After completing training, the new certificate given in accordance with what has been drilled.

During this, Said says, to meet the certification requirements there are some teachers from attending a seminar just to get the certificate. It was natural, he said, because they are not designed for the seminar. ''If they do not have a current certificate of seminars and in droves looking for seminar certificates, it's not their fault,''he explained.

Because the teacher certification program is already running, said Said, will be abolished if the government should take to eliminate the rare gaps between teachers who already have certification and are not. One way that could be taken, he added, all the teachers who already have the title deed S1 and teaching, should obtain a certificate in accordance with the rights that have been certified teachers.

''For S1 teachers who have not entered the program should be given S1. If you do not have a teaching certificate, must take the first certificate program,''firmly Said.t.

Arguing ethics

By Prof. Dr. H. Fauzul Iman MA
In Arabic, the debate known as the al-mujadalah. The word al mujadalah seakar with al-jidal said that means a heated debate. Other opinions mean a rope tied firmly. From here, said al-jidal debate implies that done in a good way and based on strong arguments and correct.
Word of God Almighty,''And, let them argue with a good way.''(Sura Annahl [16]: 125). Commenting on this verse indicates the necessity Wahbah Zuhaili arguing with said gently, be clean, and seeks to avoid words that insult or insulting tone.
Similar opinion expressed by Jaritsah Ali in his book al-Adab Al-Hiwar wa Munazarah (Ethics Dialogue and Discussion). He presented tips for creating a good sense of the discussion. First, be orderly. Second, talk delivered in a language that is not long-winded. Third, avoid speaking out of context.
Order does not in a hurry in the opinion. A first understand the problem carefully and mature. After feeling well, participants can express their opinion by asking the actual ideas.
Similarly, participants who asked. Should be, he asked the question by first doing a screening accurate information. The question must also be delivered with polite words that do not offend other people and cornering.
In such ways, the debate will be spared from the conversation or rambling lawsuits and invite invective tone of anger. "It is not the faithful, who like to revile, curse, talk dirty, and hurt," because the Prophet Muhammad.
However, very unfortunately, we still find people who do not uphold the ethical debate in the deliberations. String of dirty words and inappropriate often spoken by those who should give the example. Ironically, the dirty words that just came out when they were about to decide the policy to meet the lavatory noble people.
Somehow the fate of this nation would forward if the noble values and personality of a nation torn by the children of the nation itself. In a country situations profanity because this multidimensional crisis, we need a calm and sensible solutions to various problems that knot. So, they should all uphold the elite ethics. The main thing is being honest, responsible, trustworthy, and polite in speaking so as not to provoke the anger of the people.

Supercooling Water

How to Supercool Water

By , About.com Guide

You can cool water below its stated freezing point and then crystallize it into ice on command. This is known as supercooling. These are step-by-step instructions for supercooling water at home.
Supercooling Water - Method #1
The simplest way to supercool water is to chill it in the freezer.

1. Place an unopened bottle of distilled or purified water (e.g., with reverse osmosis) in the freezer. Mineral water or tap water will not supercool very well because they contain 'impurities' that can lower the freezing point of the water or else serve as nucleation sites for crystallization.

2. Allow the bottle of water to chill, undisturbed, for about 2-1/2 hours. The exact time needed to supercool the water varies depending on the temperature of your freezer. One way to tell your water is supercooled is to put a bottle of tap water (impure water) into the freezer with the bottle of pure water. When the tap water freezes, the pure water is supercooled. If the pure water also freezes, you either waited too long, somehow disturbed the container, or else the water was insufficiently pure.

3. Carefully remove the supercooled water from the freezer.

4. You can initiate crystallization into ice in several different ways. Two of the most entertaining ways to cause the water to freeze are to shake the bottle or to open the bottle and pour the water onto a piece of ice. In the latter case, the water will often freeze backwards from the ice cube back into the bottle.

Supercooling Water - Method #2
If you don't have a couple of hours, there is a quicker way to supercool water.

1. Pour about 2 tablespoons or 20 ml of distilled or purified water into a very clean glass.

2. Place the glass in a bowl of ice such that the level of the ice is higher than the level of water in the glass. Avoid spilling any ice into the glass of water.

3. Sprinkle a couple of tablespoons of salt onto the ice. Do not get any of the salt in the glass of water.

4. Allow about 15 minutes for the water to cool below freezing. Alternatively, you can insert a thermometer into the glass of water. When the temperature of the water is below freezing, the water has been supercooled.

5. You can make the water freeze by pouring it over a piece of ice or by dropping a small piece of ice into the glass.


Anne Marie Helmenstine, Ph.D.
Chemistry Guide

20 January 2010

PETROLEUM

Source :
http://www.answers.com/topic/petroleum

Petroleum
,
oily, flammable liquid that occurs naturally in deposits, usually beneath the surface of the earth; it is also called crude oil. It consists principally of a mixture of hydrocarbons, with traces of various nitrogenous and sulfurous compounds.

Origin and Natural Occurrence

During the past 600 million years incompletely decayed plant and animal remains have become buried under thick layers of rock. It is believed that petroleum consists of the remains of these organisms but it is the small microscopic plankton organism remains that are largely responsible for the relatively high organic carbon content of fine-grained sediments like the Chattanooga shale which are the principle source rocks for petroleum. Among the leading producers of petroleum are Saudi Arabia, Russia, the United States (chiefly Texas, California, Louisiana, Alaska, Oklahoma, and Kansas), Iran, China, Norway, Mexico, Venezuela, Iraq, Great Britain, the United Arab Emirates, Nigeria, and Kuwait. The largest known reserves are in the Middle East.

Exploration and Drilling of Wells

Because of the subterranean origin of petroleum it must be extracted by means of wells. Until an exploratory well, or wildcat, has been dug, there is no sure way of knowing whether or not petroleum lies under a particular site. In order to reduce the number of exploratory wells drilled, scientific methods are used to pick the most promising sites. Sensitive instruments, such as the gravimeter, the magnetometer, and the seismograph, may be used to find subsurface rock formations that can hold crude oil. Drilling is a fairly complex and often risky process. Some wells must be dug several miles deep before petroleum deposits are reached. Many are now drilled offshore from platforms standing in the ocean bed. Usually the petroleum from a new well will come to the surface under its own pressure. Later the crude oil must be pumped out or forced to the surface by injecting water, air, natural gas, steam, carbon dioxide, or another substance into the deposits. Enhanced recovery techniques have increased the percentage of oil that can be extracted from a field.

Composition and Refining of Petroleum

The physical properties and exact chemical composition of crude oil varies from one locality to another. The different hydrocarbon components of petroleum are dissolved natural gas, gasoline, benzine, naphtha, kerosene, diesel fuel and light heating oils, heavy heating oils, and finally tars of various weights (see tar and pitch). The crude oil is usually sent from a well to a refinery in pipelines (see under pipe) or tanker ships.

The hydrocarbon components are separated from each other by various refining processes. In a process called fractional distillation petroleum is heated and sent into a tower. The vapors of the different components condense on collectors at different heights in the tower. The separated fractions are then drawn from the collectors and further processed into various petroleum products. One of the many products of crude oil is a light substance with little color that is rich in gasoline. Another is a black tarry substance that is rich in asphalt.

As the lighter fractions, especially gasoline, are in the greatest demand, so-called cracking processes have been developed in which heat, pressure, and certain catalysts are used to break up the large molecules of heavy hydrocarbons into small molecules of light hydrocarbons. Some of the heavier fractions find eventual use as lubricating oils, paraffins, and highly refined medicinal substances such as petrolatum.

See also petrochemicals.

History and Development of Petroleum

Petroleum has been known throughout historical time. It was used in mortar, for coating walls and boat hulls, and as a fire weapon in defensive warfare. Native Americans used it in magic and medicine and in making paints. Pioneers bought it from the Native Americans for medicinal use and called it Seneca oil and Genesee oil. In Europe it was scooped from streams or holes in the ground, and in the early 19th cent. small quantities were made from shale. In 1815 several streets in Prague were lighted with petroleum lamps.

The modern petroleum industry began in 1859, when the American oil pioneer E. L. Drake drilled a producing well on Oil Creek in Pennsylvania at a place that later became Titusville. Many wells were drilled in the region. Kerosene was the chief finished product, and kerosene lamps soon replaced whale oil lamps and candles in general use. Little use other than as lamp fuel was made of petroleum until the development of the gasoline engine and its application to automobiles, trucks, tractors, and airplanes. Today the world is heavily dependent on petroleum for motive power, lubrication, fuel, dyes, drugs, and many synthetics. The widespread use of petroleum has created serious environmental problems. The great quantities that are burned as fuels generate most of the air pollution in industrialized countries, and oil spilled from tankers and offshore wells has polluted oceans and coastlines.

See also energy, sources of; oil industry.

Bibliography

See K. K. Landes, Petroleum Geology of the United States (1970); S. Schackne and N. D. Drake, Oil for the World (2d ed. 1960); L. Mosley, Power Play: Oil in the Middle East (1973).


Veterinary Dictionary:

petroleum

Top

A thick natural oil obtained from beneath the earth. It consists of a mixture of various hydrocarbons of the paraffin and olefin series. See crude petroleum oil.

  • p. jelly — petrolatum.
Wikipedia:

Petroleum

Top
Pumpjack pumping an oil well near Lubbock, Texas

Petroleum (L. petroleum, from Greek πετρέλαιον, lit. "rock oil") or crude oil is a naturally occurring, flammable liquid consisting of a complex mixture of hydrocarbons of various molecular weights, and other organic compounds, that is found in geologic formations beneath the earth's surface.

The term "petroleum" was first used in the treatise De Natura Fossilium, published in 1546 by the German mineralogist Georg Bauer, also known as Georgius Agricola.[1]

Contents [hide]

Composition

In its strictest sense, petroleum includes only crude oil, but in common usage it includes both crude oil and natural gas. Both crude oil and natural gas are predominantly a mixture of hydrocarbons. Under surface pressure and temperature conditions, the lighter hydrocarbons methane, ethane, propane and butane occur as gases, while the heavier ones from pentane and up are in the form of liquids or solids. However, in the underground oil reservoir the proportion which is gas or liquid varies depending on the subsurface conditions, and on the phase diagram of the petroleum mixture.[2]

An oil well produces predominantly crude oil, with some natural gas dissolved in it. Because the pressure is lower at the surface than underground, some of the gas will come out of solution and be recovered (or burned) as associated gas or solution gas. A gas well produces predominately natural gas. However, because the underground temperature and pressure are higher than at the surface, the gas may contain heavier hydrocarbons such as pentane, hexane, and heptane in the gaseous state. Under surface conditions these will condense out of the gas and form natural gas condensate, often shortened to condensate. Condensate resembles gasoline in appearance and is similar in composition to some volatile light crude oils.

The proportion of hydrocarbons in the petroleum mixture is highly variable between different oil fields and ranges from as much as 97% by weight in the lighter oils to as little as 50% in the heavier oils and bitumens.

The hydrocarbons in crude oil are mostly alkanes, cycloalkanes and various aromatic hydrocarbons while the other organic compounds contain nitrogen, oxygen and sulfur, and trace amounts of metals such as iron, nickel, copper and vanadium. The exact molecular composition varies widely from formation to formation but the proportion of chemical elements vary over fairly narrow limits as follows:[3]

Composition by weight
Element Percent range
Carbon 83 to 87%
Hydrogen 10 to 14%
Nitrogen 0.1 to 2%
Oxygen 0.1 to 1.5%
Sulfur 0.5 to 6%
Metals less than 1000 ppm

Four different types of hydrocarbon molecules appear in crude oil. The relative percentage of each varies from oil to oil, determining the properties of each oil.[2]

Composition by weight
Hydrocarbon Average Range
Paraffins 30% 15 to 60%
Naphthenes 49% 30 to 60%
Aromatics 15% 3 to 30%
Asphaltics 6% remainder
Most of the world's oils are non-conventional.[4]

Crude oil varies greatly in appearance depending on its composition. It is usually black or dark brown (although it may be yellowish or even greenish). In the reservoir it is usually found in association with natural gas, which being lighter forms a gas cap over the petroleum, and saline water which, being heavier than most forms of crude oil, generally sinks beneath it. Crude oil may also be found in semi-solid form mixed with sand and water, as in the Athabasca oil sands in Canada, where it is usually referred to as crude bitumen. In Canada, bitumen is considered a sticky, tar-like form of crude oil which is so thick and heavy that it must be heated or diluted before it will flow.[5] Venezuela also has large amounts of oil in the Orinoco oil sands, although the hydrocarbons trapped in them are more fluid than in Canada and are usually called extra heavy oil. These oil sands resources are called unconventional oil to distinguish them from oil which can be extracted using traditional oil well methods. Between them, Canada and Venezuela contain an estimated 3.6 trillion barrels (570×10^9 m3) of bitumen and extra-heavy oil, about twice the volume of the world's reserves of conventional oil.[6]

Petroleum is used mostly, by volume, for producing fuel oil and gasoline (petrol), both important "primary energy" sources.[7] 84% by volume of the hydrocarbons present in petroleum is converted into energy-rich fuels (petroleum-based fuels), including gasoline, diesel, jet, heating, and other fuel oils, and liquefied petroleum gas.[8] The lighter grades of crude oil produce the best yields of these products, but as the world's reserves of light and medium oil are depleted, oil refineries are increasingly having to process heavy oil and bitumen, and use more complex and expensive methods to produce the products required. Because heavier crude oils have too much carbon and not enough hydrogen, these processes generally involve removing carbon from or adding hydrogen to the molecules, and using fluid catalytic cracking to convert the longer, more complex molecules in the oil to the shorter, simpler ones in the fuels.

Due to its high energy density, easy transportability and relative abundance, oil has become the world's most important source of energy since the mid-1950s. Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics; the 16% not used for energy production is converted into these other materials. Petroleum is found in porous rock formations in the upper strata of some areas of the Earth's crust. There is also petroleum in oil sands (tar sands). Known reserves of petroleum are typically estimated at around 190 km3 (1.2 trillion (short scale) barrels) without oil sands,[9] or 595 km3 (3.74 trillion barrels) with oil sands.[10] Consumption is currently around 84 million barrels (13.4×10^6 m3) per day, or 4.9 km3 per year. Because the energy return over energy invested (EROEI) ratio of oil is constantly falling (due to physical phenomena such as residual oil saturation, and the economic factor of rising marginal extraction costs), recoverable oil reserves are significantly less than total oil in place.[citation needed] At current consumption levels, and assuming that oil will be consumed only from reservoirs, known recoverable reserves would be gone around 2039,[citation needed] potentially leading to a global energy crisis. However, to date discoveries of new oil reserves have more than matched increased usage. In addition, there are factors which may extend or reduce this estimate, including the increasing demand for petroleum in developing nations, particularly China and India; further new discoveries; increased economic viability of recoveries from more difficult to exploit sources; energy conservation and use of alternative energy sources; and new economically viable exploitation of unconventional oil sources.

Chemistry

Octane, a hydrocarbon found in petroleum, lines are single bonds, black spheres are carbon, white spheres are hydrogen

Petroleum is a mixture of a very large number of different hydrocarbons; the most commonly found molecules are alkanes (linear or branched), cycloalkanes, aromatic hydrocarbons, or more complicated chemicals like asphaltenes. Each petroleum variety has a unique mix of molecules, which define its physical and chemical properties, like color and viscosity.

The alkanes, also known as paraffins, are saturated hydrocarbons with straight or branched chains which contain only carbon and hydrogen and have the general formula CnH2n+2 They generally have from 5 to 40 carbon atoms per molecule, although trace amounts of shorter or longer molecules may be present in the mixture.

The alkanes from pentane (C5H12) to octane (C8H18) are refined into gasoline (petrol), the ones from nonane (C9H20) to hexadecane (C16H34) into diesel fuel and kerosene (primary component of many types of jet fuel), and the ones from hexadecane upwards into fuel oil and lubricating oil. At the heavier end of the range, paraffin wax is an alkane with approximately 25 carbon atoms, while asphalt has 35 and up, although these are usually cracked by modern refineries into more valuable products. The shortest molecules, those with four or fewer carbon atoms, are in a gaseous state at room temperature. They are the petroleum gases. Depending on demand and the cost of recovery, these gases are either flared off, sold as liquified petroleum gas under pressure, or used to power the refinery's own burners. During the winter, Butane (C4H10), is blended into the gasoline pool at high rates, because butane's high vapor pressure assists with cold starts. Liquified under pressure slightly above atmospheric, it is best known for powering cigarette lighters, but it is also a main fuel source for many developing countries. Propane can be liquified under modest pressure, and is consumed for just about every application relying on petroleum for energy, from cooking to heating to transportation.

The cycloalkanes, also known as naphthenes, are saturated hydrocarbons which have one or more carbon rings to which hydrogen atoms are attached according to the formula CnH2n. Cycloalkanes have similar properties to alkanes but have higher boiling points.

The aromatic hydrocarbons are unsaturated hydrocarbons which have one or more planar six-carbon rings called benzene rings, to which hydrogen atoms are attached with the formula CnHn. They tend to burn with a sooty flame, and many have a sweet aroma. Some are carcinogenic.

These different molecules are separated by fractional distillation at an oil refinery to produce gasoline, jet fuel, kerosene, and other hydrocarbons. For example 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (isooctane), widely used in gasoline, has a chemical formula of C8H18 and it reacts with oxygen exothermically:[11]

2\mathrm{C}_8 \mathrm{H}_{18(l)} + 25\mathrm{O}_{2(g)} \rightarrow \; 16\mathrm{CO}_{2(g)} + 18\mathrm{H}_2 \mathrm{O}_{(l)} + 10.86 \ \mathrm{MJ}

The amount of various molecules in an oil sample can be determined in laboratory. The molecules are typically extracted in a solvent, then separated in a gas chromatograph, and finally determined with a suitable detector, such as a flame ionization detector or a mass spectrometer.[12]

Incomplete combustion of petroleum or gasoline results in production of toxic byproducts. Too little oxygen results in carbon monoxide. Due to the high temperatures and high pressures involved, exhaust gases from gasoline combustion in car engines usually include nitrogen oxides which are responsible for creation of photochemical smog.

Empirical Equations for the Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products

Heat of Combustion: At a constant volume the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as: Qv = 12,400 − 2,100d2 where Qv is measured in cal/gram and d is the specific gravity at 60°F.

Thermal Conductivity The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as: K = \frac{0.813}{d}[1-0.0003(t-32)] where K is measured in BTU per hour per square foot and °F per in and d is the specific gravity at 60°F.

Specific Heat The specific heat of a petroleum oils can be modeled as: c = \frac{1}{\sqrt{d}} [0.388+0.00045t] where c is measured in BTU/lbm-°F, t is the temperature in Fahrenheit and d is the specific gravity at 60°F. In units of kcal/kg°C this is \frac{1}{\sqrt{d}} [0.402+0.00081t] where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15°C.

Latent Heat of Vaporization The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as: L = \frac{1}{d}[110.9 - 0.09t] where L is measured in BTU/lbm, t is measured in °F and d is the specific gravity at 60°F. In units of kcal/kg this is L = \frac{1}{d}[194.4 - 0.162t] where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15°C.[13]

Formation

According to generally accepted theory, petroleum is derived from ancient biomass.[14] It is a fossil fuel derived from ancient fossilized organic materials. The theory was initially based on the isolation of molecules from petroleum that closely resemble known biomolecules (Figure).

Structure of vanadium porphyrin compound extracted from petroleum by Alfred Treibs, father of organic geochemistry. Treibs noted the close structural similarity of this molecule and chlorophyll a.

More specifically, crude oil and natural gas are products of heating of ancient organic materials (i.e. kerogen) over geological time. Formation of petroleum occurs from hydrocarbon pyrolysis, in a variety of mostly endothermic reactions at high temperature and/or pressure.[15] Today's oil formed from the preserved remains of prehistoric zooplankton and algae, which had settled to a sea or lake bottom in large quantities under anoxic conditions (the remains of prehistoric terrestrial plants, on the other hand, tended to form coal). Over geological time the organic matter mixed with mud, and was buried under heavy layers of sediment resulting in high levels of heat and pressure (diagenesis). This process caused the organic matter to change, first into a waxy material known as kerogen, which is found in various oil shales around the world, and then with more heat into liquid and gaseous hydrocarbons via a process known as catagenesis.

Geologists often refer to the temperature range in which oil forms as an "oil window"[16]—below the minimum temperature oil remains trapped in the form of kerogen, and above the maximum temperature the oil is converted to natural gas through the process of thermal cracking. Sometimes, oil which is formed at extreme depths may migrate and become trapped at much shallower depths than where it was formed. The Athabasca Oil Sands is one example of this.

Abiogenic origin

A number of geologists adhere to the abiogenic petroleum origin hypothesis and maintain that hydrocarbons of purely inorganic origin exist within Earth's interior. Chemists Marcellin Berthelot and Dmitri Mendeleev, as well as astronomer Thomas Gold championed the theory in the Western world by supporting the work done by Nikolai Kudryavtsev in the 1950s. It is currently supported primarily by Kenney and Krayushkin.[17]

The abiogenic origin hypothesis has not yet been ruled out. Its advocates consider that it is "still an open question"[18] Extensive research into the chemical structure of kerogen has identified algae as the primary source of oil. The abiogenic origin hypothesis fails to explain the presence of these markers in kerogen and oil, as well as failing to explain how inorganic origin could be achieved at temperatures and pressures sufficient to convert kerogen to graphite. It has not been successfully used in uncovering oil deposits by geologists, as the hypothesis lacks any mechanism for determining where the process may occur.[19] More recently scientists at the Carnegie Institution for Science have found that ethane and heavier hydrocarbons can be synthesized under conditions of the upper mantle.[20][citation needed]

Crude oil

Crude oil reservoirs

Hydrocarbon trap.

Three conditions must be present for oil reservoirs to form: a source rock rich in hydrocarbon material buried deep enough for subterranean heat to cook it into oil; a porous and permeable reservoir rock for it to accumulate in; and a cap rock (seal) or other mechanism that prevents it from escaping to the surface. Within these reservoirs, fluids will typically organize themselves like a three-layer cake with a layer of water below the oil layer and a layer of gas above it, although the different layers vary in size between reservoirs. Because most hydrocarbons are lighter than rock or water, they often migrate upward through adjacent rock layers until either reaching the surface or becoming trapped within porous rocks (known as reservoirs) by impermeable rocks above. However, the process is influenced by underground water flows, causing oil to migrate hundreds of kilometres horizontally or even short distances downward before becoming trapped in a reservoir. When hydrocarbons are concentrated in a trap, an oil field forms, from which the liquid can be extracted by drilling and pumping.

The reactions that produce oil and natural gas are often modeled as first order breakdown reactions, where hydrocarbons are broken down to oil and natural gas by a set of parallel reactions, and oil eventually breaks down to natural gas by another set of reactions. The latter set is regularly used in petrochemical plants and oil refineries.

Wells are drilled into oil reservoirs to extract the crude oil. "Natural lift" production methods that rely on the natural reservoir pressure to force the oil to the surface are usually sufficient for a while after reservoirs are first tapped. In some reservoirs, such as in the Middle East , the natural pressure is sufficient over a long time. The natural pressure in many reservoirs, however, eventually dissipates. Then the oil must be pumped out using “artificial lift” created by mechanical pumps powered by gas or electricity. Over time, these "primary" methods become less effective and "secondary" production methods may be used. A common secondary method is “waterflood” or injection of water into the reservoir to increase pressure and force the oil to the drilled shaft or "wellbore." Eventually "tertiary" or "enhanced" oil recovery methods may be used to increase the oil's flow characteristics by injecting steam, carbon dioxide and other gases or chemicals into the reservoir. In the United States, primary production methods account for less than 40% of the oil produced on a daily basis, secondary methods account for about half, and tertiary recovery the remaining 10%. Extracting oil (or “bitumen”) from oil/tar sand and oil shale deposits requires mining the sand or shale and heating it in a vessel or retort, or using “in-situ” methods of injecting heated liquids into the deposit and then pumping out the oil-saturated liquid.

Unconventional oil reservoirs

Oil-eating bacteria biodegrades oil that has escaped to the surface. Oil sands are reservoirs of partially biodegraded oil still in the process of escaping and being biodegraded, but they contain so much migrating oil that, although most of it has escaped, vast amounts are still present—more than can be found in conventional oil reservoirs. The lighter fractions of the crude oil are destroyed first, resulting in reservoirs containing an extremely heavy form of crude oil, called crude bitumen in Canada, or extra-heavy crude oil in Venezuela. These two countries have the world's largest deposits of oil sands.

On the other hand, oil shales are source rocks that have not been exposed to heat or pressure long enough to convert their trapped hydrocarbons into crude oil. Technically speaking, oil shales are not really shales and do not really contain oil, but are usually relatively hard rocks called marls containing a waxy substance called kerogen. The kerogen trapped in the rock can be converted into crude oil using heat and pressure to simulate natural processes. The method has been known for centuries and was patented in 1694 under British Crown Patent No. 330 covering, "A way to extract and make great quantityes of pitch, tarr, and oyle out of a sort of stone." Although oil shales are found in many countries, the United States has the world's largest deposits.[21]

Classification

A sample of medium heavy crude oil

The petroleum industry generally classifies crude oil by the geographic location it is produced in (e.g. West Texas Intermediate, Brent, or Oman), its API gravity (an oil industry measure of density), and by its sulfur content. Crude oil may be considered light if it has low density or heavy if it has high density; and it may be referred to as sweet if it contains relatively little sulfur or sour if it contains substantial amounts of sulfur.

The geographic location is important because it affects transportation costs to the refinery. Light crude oil is more desirable than heavy oil since it produces a higher yield of gasoline, while sweet oil commands a higher price than sour oil because it has fewer environmental problems and requires less refining to meet sulfur standards imposed on fuels in consuming countries. Each crude oil has unique molecular characteristics which are understood by the use of crude oil assay analysis in petroleum laboratories.

Barrels from an area in which the crude oil's molecular characteristics have been determined and the oil has been classified are used as pricing references throughout the world. Some of the common reference crudes are:

There are declining amounts of these benchmark oils being produced each year, so other oils are more commonly what is actually delivered. While the reference price may be for West Texas Intermediate delivered at Cushing, the actual oil being traded may be a discounted Canadian heavy oil delivered at Hardisty, Alberta, and for a Brent Blend delivered at the Shetlands, it may be a Russian Export Blend delivered at the port of Primorsk.[22]

Petroleum industry

New York Mercantile Exchange prices for West Texas Intermediate 1996–2009

The petroleum industry is involved in the global processes of exploration, extraction, refining, transporting (often with oil tankers and pipelines), and marketing petroleum products. The largest volume products of the industry are fuel oil and gasoline (petrol). Petroleum is also the raw material for many chemical products, including pharmaceuticals, solvents, fertilizers, pesticides, and plastics. The industry is usually divided into three major components: upstream, midstream and downstream. Midstream operations are usually included in the downstream category.

Petroleum is vital to many industries, and is of importance to the maintenance of industrialized civilization itself, and thus is critical concern to many nations. Oil accounts for a large percentage of the world's energy consumption, ranging from a low of 32% for Europe and Asia, up to a high of 53% for the Middle East. Other geographic regions' consumption patterns are as follows: South and Central America (44%), Africa (41%), and North America (40%). The world at large consumes 30 billion barrels (4.8 km³) of oil per year, and the top oil consumers largely consist of developed nations. In fact, 24% of the oil consumed in 2004 went to the United States alone [23], though by 2007 this had dropped to 21% of world oil consumed.[24]

In the US, in the states of Arizona, California, Hawaii, Nevada, Oregon and Washington, the Western States Petroleum Association (WSPA) is responsible for producing, distributing, refining, transporting and marketing petroleum. This non-profit trade association was founded in 1907, and is the oldest petroleum trade association in the United States.[25]

History

Oil derrick in Okemah, Oklahoma, 1922.

Petroleum, in one form or another, has been used since ancient times, and is now important across society, including in economy, politics and technology. The rise in importance was mostly due to the invention of the internal combustion engine and the rise in commercial aviation

More than 4000 years ago, according to Herodotus and Diodorus Siculus, asphalt was used in the construction of the walls and towers of Babylon; there were oil pits near Ardericca (near Babylon), and a pitch spring on Zacynthus.[26] Great quantities of it were found on the banks of the river Issus, one of the tributaries of the Euphrates. Ancient Persian tablets indicate the medicinal and lighting uses of petroleum in the upper levels of their society.

Today, about 90% of vehicular fuel needs are met by oil. Petroleum also makes up 40% of total energy consumption in the United States, but is responsible for only 2% of electricity generation. Petroleum's worth as a portable, dense energy source powering the vast majority of vehicles and as the base of many industrial chemicals makes it one of the world's most important commodities.

The top three oil producing countries are Saudi Arabia, Russia, and the United States.[27] About 80% of the world's readily accessible reserves are located in the Middle East, with 62.5% coming from the Arab 5: Saudi Arabia, UAE, Iraq, Qatar and Kuwait. A large portion of the world's total oil exists as unconventional sources, such as bitumen in Canada and Venezuela and oil shale. While significant volumes of oil are extracted from oil sands, particularly in Canada, logistical and technical hurdles remain, and Canada's oil sands are not expected to provide more than a few million barrels per day in the foreseeable future.

Price

After the collapse of the OPEC-administered pricing system in 1985, and a short lived experiment with netback pricing, oil-exporting countries adopted a market-linked pricing mechanism.[28] First adopted by PEMEX in 1986, market-linked pricing was widely accepted, and by 1988 became and still is the main method for pricing crude oil in international trade.[28] The current reference, or pricing markers, are Brent, WTI, and Dubai/Oman.[28]

Uses

The chemical structure of petroleum is heterogeneous, composed of hydrocarbon chains of different lengths. Because of this, petroleum may be taken to oil refineries and the hydrocarbon chemicals separated by distillation and treated by other chemical processes, to be used for a variety of purposes. See Petroleum products.

Fuels

The most common distillations of petroleum are fuels. Fuels include:

Other derivatives

Certain types of resultant hydrocarbons may be mixed with other non-hydrocarbons, to create other end products:

Petroleum by country

Consumption statistics

Consumption

Oil consumption per capita (darker colors represent more consumption).

This table orders the amount of petroleum consumed in 2006 in thousand barrels (bbl) per day and in thousand cubic metres (m3) per day:[29][30][31]

Consuming Nation 2006 (1000 bbl/day) (1000 m3/day) population in millions bbl/year per capita
United States 1 20,687.42 3,289.0 304 24.8
China 7,201.28 1,144.9 1369 1.9
Japan 2 5,197.70 826.4 128 14.8
Russia 1 2,810.76 446.9 142 7.2
Germany 2 2,691.81 428.0 82 12
India 2 2,571.90 408.9 1201 0.8
Canada 2,296.66 365.1 32[32] 25.7
Brazil 2,216.84 352.4 187 4.3
South Korea 2 2,179.90 346.6 49[33] 16.3
Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 2,139.42 340.1 27[34] 28.9
Mexico 1 2,077.51 330.3 107 7.1
France 2 1,981.18 315.0 61[35] 11.9
United Kingdom 1 1,812.01 288.1 61[36] 10.9
Italy 2 1,742.58 277.0 58[37] 10.9
Iran (OPEC) 1,679.20 267.0 68[38] 8.9

Source: US Energy Information Administration

1 peak production of oil already passed in this state

2 This country is not a major oil producer

Production

Oil producing countries
Graph of Top Oil Producing Countries 1960-2006, including Soviet Union[39]

In petroleum industry parlance, production refers to the quantity of crude extracted from reserves, not the literal creation of the product.

# Producing Nation 103bbl/d (2006) 103bbl/d (2007)
1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 10,665 10,234
2 Russia 1 9,677 9,876
3 United States 1 8,331 8,481
4 Iran (OPEC) 4,148 4,043
5 China 3,845 3,901
6 Mexico 1 3,707 3,501
7 Canada 2 3,288 3,358
8 United Arab Emirates (OPEC) 2,945 2,948
9 Venezuela (OPEC) 1 2,803 2,667
10 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,675 2,613
11 Norway 1 2,786 2,565
12 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,443 2,352
13 Brazil 2,166 2,279
14 Algeria (OPEC) 2,122 2,173
15 Iraq (OPEC) 3 2,008 2,094
16 Libya (OPEC) 1,809 1,845
17 Angola (OPEC) 1,435 1,769
18 United Kingdom 1,689 1,690
19 Kazakhstan 1,388 1,445
20 Qatar (OPEC) 1,141 1,136
21 Indonesia 1,102 1,044
22 India 854 881
23 Azerbaijan 648 850
24 Argentina 802 791
25 Oman 743 714
26 Malaysia 729 703
27 Egypt 667 664
28 Australia 552 595
29 Colombia 544 543
30 Ecuador (OPEC) 536 512
31 Sudan 380 466
32 Syria 449 446
33 Equatorial Guinea 386 400
34 Yemen 377 361
35 Vietnam 362 352
36 Thailand 334 349
37 Denmark 344 314
38 Congo 247 250
39 Gabon 237 244
40 South Africa 204 199

Source: U.S. Energy Information Administration

1 Peak production of conventional oil already passed in this state

2 Although Canadian conventional oil production is declining, total oil production is increasing as oil sands production grows. If oil sands are included, it has the world's second largest oil reserves after Saudi Arabia.

3 Though still a member, Iraq has not been included in production figures since 1998

Export

See also: Fossil fuel exporters

Oil exports by country

In order of net exports in 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand /d:

# Exporting Nation (2006) (103bbl/d) (103m3/d)
1 Saudi Arabia (OPEC) 8,651 1,376
2 Russia 1 6,565 1,044
3 Norway 1 2,542 404
4 Iran (OPEC) 2,519 401
5 United Arab Emirates (OPEC) 2,515 400
6 Venezuela (OPEC) 1 2,203 350
7 Kuwait (OPEC) 2,150 342
8 Nigeria (OPEC) 2,146 341
9 Algeria (OPEC) 1 1,847 297
10 Mexico 1 1,676 266
11 Libya (OPEC) 1 1,525 242
12 Iraq (OPEC) 1,438 229
13 Angola (OPEC) 1,363 217
14 Kazakhstan 1,114 177
15 Canada 2 1,071 170

Source: US Energy Information Administration

1 peak production already passed in this state

2 Canadian statistics are complicated by the fact it is both an importer and exporter of crude oil, and refines large amounts of oil for the U.S. market. It is the leading source of U.S. imports of oil and products, averaging 2.5 MMbbl/d in August 2007. [1].

Total world production/consumption (as of 2005) is approximately 84 million barrels per day (13,400,000 m3/d).

See also: Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries.

Import

Oil imports by country

In order of net imports in 2006 in thousand bbl/d and thousand /d:

# Importing Nation (2006) (103bbl/day) (103m3/day)
1 United States 1 12,220 1,943
2 Japan 5,097 810
3 China 2 3,438 547
4 Germany 2,483 395
5 South Korea 2,150 342
6 France 1,893 301
7 India 1,687 268
8 Italy 1,558 248
9 Spain 1,555 247
10 Republic of China (Taiwan) 942 150
11 Netherlands 936 149
12 Singapore 787 125
13 Thailand 606 96
14 Turkey 576 92
15 Belgium 546 87

Source: US Energy Information Administration

1 peak production of oil already passed in this state

2 Major oil producer whose production is still increasing

Non-producing consumers

Countries whose oil production is 10% or less of their consumption.

# Consuming Nation (bbl/day) (m³/day)
1 Japan 5,578,000 886,831
2 Germany 2,677,000 425,609
3 South Korea 2,061,000 327,673
4 France 2,060,000 327,514
5 Italy 1,874,000 297,942
6 Spain 1,537,000 244,363
7 Netherlands 946,700 150,513

Source : CIA World Factbook

Environmental effects

Diesel fuel spill on a road

The presence of oil has significant social and environmental impacts, from accidents and routine activities such as seismic exploration, drilling, and generation of polluting wastes, greenhouse gases and climate change not produced by renewable energy.

Extraction

Oil extraction is costly and sometimes environmentally damaging, although Dr. John Hunt of the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution pointed out in a 1981 paper that over 70% of the reserves in the world are associated with visible macroseepages, and many oil fields are found due to natural seeps. Offshore exploration and extraction of oil disturbs the surrounding marine environment.[40]

Oil spills

Volunteers cleaning up the aftermath of the Prestige oil spill

Crude oil and refined fuel spills from tanker ship accidents have damaged natural ecosystems in Alaska, the Galapagos Islands, France and many other places.

The quantity of oil spilled during accidents has ranged from a few hundred tons to several hundred thousand tons (e.g., Atlantic Empress, Amoco Cadiz). Smaller spills have already proven to have a great impact on ecosystems, such as the Exxon Valdez oil spill

Oil spills at sea are generally much more damaging than those on land, since they can spread for hundreds of nautical miles in a thin oil slick which can cover beaches with a thin coating of oil. This can kill sea birds, mammals, shellfish and other organisms it coats. Oil spills on land are more readily containable if a makeshift earth dam can be rapidly bulldozed around the spill site before most of the oil escapes, and land animals can avoid the oil more easily.

Control of oil spills is difficult, requires ad hoc methods, and often a large amount of manpower (picture). The dropping of bombs and incendiary devices from aircraft on the Torrey Canyon wreck produced poor results;[41] modern techniques would include pumping the oil from the wreck, like in the Prestige oil spill or the Erika oil spill.[42]

Whales

James S. Robbins has argued that the advent of petroleum-refined kerosene saved some species of great whales from extinction by providing an inexpensive substitute for whale oil, thus eliminating the economic imperative for open-boat whaling.[43]

Alternatives to petroleum

In the United States in 2007 about 70% of petroleum was used for transportation (e.g. gasoline, diesel, jet fuel), 24% by industry (e.g. production of plastics), 5% for residential and commercial uses, and 2% for electricity production.[44] Outside of the US, a higher proportion of petroleum tends to be used for electricity.[45]

Alternatives to petroleum-based vehicle fuels

Alternative propulsion refers to both:

Currently, cars can be classified into the following groups:

Alternatives to using oil in industry

Biological feedstocks do exist for industrial uses such as plastic production.[47]

Alternatives to burning petroleum for electricity

In oil producing countries with little refinery capacity, oil is sometimes burned to produce electricity. Renewable energy technologies such as solar power, wind power, micro hydro, biomass and biofuels might someday be used to replace some of these generators, but today the primary alternatives remain large scale hydroelectricity, nuclear and coal-fired generation.

Future of petroleum production

USA Today news reported in 2004 that there were 40 years of petroleum left in the ground. As similar statements have been made in the 40 previous years, it hardly carries the complex situation.[citation needed]

Consumption in the twentieth century has been abundantly pushed by automobile growth ; the 1985-2003 oil glut even fuelled the sales of low economy vehicles (SUVs) in OECD countries. In 2008, the economic crisis seems to have some impact on the sales of such vehicles ; still, the 2008 oil consumption shows a small increase. The BRIC countries might also kick in, as China briefly was the first automobile market in December 2009[48] . The immediate outlook still hints upwards. In the long term, uncertainties loiter ; the OPEC believes that the OECD countries will push low consumption policies at some point in the future ; when that happens, it will definitely curb the oil sales, and both OPEC and EIA kept lowering their 2020 consumption estimates during the past 5 years [49]. Oil products are more and more in competition with alternative sources, mainly coal and natural gas, both cheaper sources.

Production will also face an increasingly complex situation ; while OPEC countries still have large reserves at low production prices, newly found reservoirs often lead to higher prices ; offshore giants such as Tupi, Guara and Tiber demand high investments and ever-increasing technological abilities. Subsalt reservoirs such as Tupi were unknown in the twentieth century, mainly because the industry was unable to probe them. Enhanced Oil Recovery (EOR) techniques (example : DaQing, China [50] ) will continue to play a major role in increasing the world's recoverable oil.

Hubbert peak theory

The Hubbert peak theory (also known as peak oil) posits that future petroleum production (whether for individual oil wells, entire oil fields, whole countries, or worldwide production) will eventually peak and then decline at a similar rate to the rate of increase before the peak as these reserves are exhausted. The peak of oil discoveries was in 1965, and oil production per year has surpassed oil discoveries every year since 1980.[51]


Controversy surrounds predictions of the timing of the global peak, as these predictions are dependent on the past production and discovery data used in the calculation as well as how unconventional reserves are considered[citation needed]. Also, these predictions do not take into account outside elements such as the current economic crisis (2008)[citation needed]. Also, many Peak Oil promoters proposed many different dates, some of them passed already[citation needed].

It is difficult to predict the oil peak in any given region, due to the lack of knowledge and/or transparency in accounting of global oil reserves.[52] Based on available production data, proponents have previously predicted the peak for the world to be in years 1989, 1995, or 1995-2000. Some of these predictions date from before the recession of the early 1980s, and the consequent reduction in global consumption, the effect of which was to delay the date of any peak by several years. Just as the 1971 U.S. peak in oil production was only clearly recognized after the fact, a peak in world production will be difficult to discern until production clearly drops off.

See also

References

  1. ^ Bauer Georg, Bandy Mark Chance (tr.), Bandy Jean A.(tr.). De Natura Fossilium. translated 1955
  2. ^ a b Hyne, Norman J. (2001). Nontechnical Guide to Petroleum Geology, Exploration, Drilling, and Production. PennWell Corporation. pp. 1–4. ISBN 087814823X.
  3. ^ Speight, James G. (1999). The Chemistry and Technology of Petroleum. Marcel Dekker. pp. 215–216. ISBN 0824702174.
  4. ^ Alboudwarej et al. (Summer 2006) (PDF). Highlighting Heavy Oil. Oilfield Review. http://www.slb.com/media/services/resources/oilfieldreview/ors06/sum06/heavy_oil.pdf. Retrieved 2008-05-24.
  5. ^ "Oil Sands - Glossary". Mines and Minerals Act. Government of Alberta. 2007. http://www.energy.gov.ab.ca/OilSands/1106.asp. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
  6. ^ "Oil Sands in Canada and Venezuela". Infomine Inc.. 2008. http://oilsands.infomine.com/countries/. Retrieved 2008-10-02.
  7. ^ IEA Key World Energy Statistics
  8. ^ "Crude oil is made into different fuels"
  9. ^ EIA reserves estimates
  10. ^ CERA report on total world oil
  11. ^ Heat of Combustion of Fuels
  12. ^ Use of ozone depleting substances in laboratories. TemaNord 2003:516. http://www.norden.org/pub/ebook/2003-516.pdf
  13. ^ United States Bureau of Standards, "Thermal Properties of Petroleum Products". Miscellaneous Publication No. 97, November 9th, 1929.
  14. ^ Keith A. Kvenvolden “Organic geochemistry – A retrospective of its first 70 years” Organic Geochemistry 37 (2006) 1–11. doi:10.1016/j.orggeochem.2005.09.001
  15. ^ Petroleum Study
  16. ^ http://oilismastery.blogspot.com/2008/05/oil-window.html
  17. ^ Kenney et al., Dismissal of the Claims of a Biological Connection for Natural Petroleum, Energia 2001
  18. ^ Anton Kolesnikov, Vladimir G. Kutcherov, Alexander F. Goncharov (26 July 2009). "Methane-derived hydrocarbons produced under upper-mantle conditions". Nature Geoscience 2 (8 pages=566–570). doi:10.1038/ngeo591.
  19. ^ Glasby, Geoffrey P. (2006). "Abiogenic origin of hydrocarbons: an historical overview" (PDF). Resource Geology 56 (1): 83–96. doi:10.1111/j.1751-3928.2006.tb00271.x. http://static.scribd.com/docs/j79lhbgbjbqrb.pdf. Retrieved 2008-02-17.
  20. ^ Hydrocarbons in the deep Earth? July 2009 (Press release)
  21. ^ Lambertson, Giles (2008-02-16). "Oil Shale: Ready to Unlock the Rock". Construction Equipment Guide. http://www.cegltd.com/story.asp?story=10092. Retrieved 2008-05-21.
  22. ^ "Light Sweet Crude Oil". About the Exchange. New York Mercantile Exchange (NYMEX). 2006. http://www.nymex.com/lsco_fut_descri.aspx. Retrieved 2008-04-21.
  23. ^ "International Energy Annual 2004" (XLS). Energy Information Administration. 2006-07-14. http://www.eia.doe.gov/pub/international/iealf/tablee2.xls.
  24. ^ "Yearbook 2008 - crude oil". Enerdata. http://www.enerdata.fr/enerdatauk/publications/yearbook/crude_oil.php.
  25. ^ "Western States Petroleum Association - About Us". http://www.wspa.org/about/index.htm. Retrieved 2008-11-03.
  26. ^ This article incorporates text from the article "Petroleum" in the Encyclopædia Britannica, Eleventh Edition, a publication now in the public domain.
  27. ^ InfoPlease
  28. ^ a b c Mabro, Robert; Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (2006). Oil in the 21st century: issues, challenges and opportunities. Oxford Press. pp. 351. ISBN 0199207380, 9780199207381.
  29. ^ U.S. Energy Information Administration. Excel file RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls from web page http://tonto.eia.doe.gov/dnav/pet/pet_pri_wco_k_w.htm (direct link: http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/international/RecentPetroleumConsumptionBarrelsperDay.xls) "Table Posted: November 7, 2008"
  30. ^ From DSW-Datareport 2006 ("Deutsche Stiftung Weltbevölkerung")
  31. ^ One cubic metre of oil is equivalent to 6.28981077 barrels of oil
  32. ^ Beauchesne, Eric (2007-03-13). "We are 31,612,897". National Post. http://www.canada.com/nationalpost/financialpost/story.html?id=73b94aac-08f0-477f-a72a-b8b640f6658f&k=90795. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
  33. ^ IndexMundi. South Korea Population - Demographics. "48,846,823" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11
  34. ^ Sources vary: 24,600,000 from "UNHCR / Refworld / The Worst of the Worst 2006 - Saudi Arabia". United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees. http://www.unhcr.org/refworld/docid/4917f8351e.html. Retrieved 2008-11-11. ; while IndexMundi listed a July 2006 estimate of 27,019,73: "Saudi Arabia Population - Demographics". IndexMundi. http://indexmundi.com/saudi_arabia/population.html. Retrieved 2008-11-11.
  35. ^ IndexMundi. France Population - Demographics. "60,876,136" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11
  36. ^ IndexMundi. United Kingdom Population - Demographics. "60,609,153" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11
  37. ^ IndexMundi. Italy Population - Demographics. "58,133,509" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11
  38. ^ IndexMundi. Iran Population - Demographics. "68,688,433" ... "July 2006 est." Retrieved 2008-11-11
  39. ^ http://www.eia.doe.gov/emeu/aer/pdf/pages/sec11_10.pdf
  40. ^ Waste discharges during the offshore oil and gas activity by Stanislave Patin, tr. Elena Cascio
  41. ^ Torrey Canyon bombing by the Navy and RAF
  42. ^ Pumping of the Erika cargo
  43. ^ How Capitalism Saved the Whales by James S. Robbins, The Freeman, August, 1992.
  44. ^ "U.S. Primary Energy Consumption by Source and Sector, 2007". Energy Information Administration
  45. ^ needtitleUN Energy Program
  46. ^ Amory B. Lovins, E. Kyle Datta, Odd-Even Bustnes, Jonathan G. Koomey, Nathan J. Glasgow. "Winning the oil endgame" Rocky Mountain Institute
  47. ^ Bioprocessing Seattle Times (2003)
  48. ^ Chris Hogg (2009-02-10). "China's car industry overtakes US". http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/7879372.stm.
  49. ^ OPEC Secretariat (2008). "World Oil Outlook 2008". http://www.opec.org/library/World%20Oil%20Outlook/pdf/WOO2008.pdf.
  50. ^ Ni Weiling (2006-10-16). "Daqing Oilfield rejuvenated by virtue of technology". http://en.ce.cn/Insight/200610/16/t20061016_8980162.shtml.
  51. ^ Campbell CJ (2000-12). "Peak Oil Presentation at the Technical University of Clausthal". http://energycrisis.org/de/lecture.html.
  52. ^ New study raises doubts about Saudi oil reserves

External links


Translations:

petroleum

Top
Petroleum

Dansk (Danish)
n. - jordolie

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly vaseline

Nederlands (Dutch)
aardolie

Français (French)
n. - pétrole

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly vaseline

Deutsch (German)
n. - Erdöl

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly Vaseline

Ελληνική (Greek)
n. - (χημ.) πετρέλαιο

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly (χημ.) βαζελίνη

Italiano (Italian)
petrolio

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly vaselina

Português (Portuguese)
n. - petróleo (m)

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly vaselina

Русский (Russian)
нефть

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly вазелин

Español (Spanish)
n. - petróleo

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly vaselina, petrolato, gelatina de petróleo

Svenska (Swedish)
n. - petroleum, (berg)olja

中文(简体)(Chinese (Simplified))
石油

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly 凡士林

中文(繁體)(Chinese (Traditional))
n. - 石油

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly 凡士林

한국어 (Korean)
n. - 석유

日本語 (Japanese)
n. - 石油

idioms:

  • petroleum jelly ペトロラタム, ワセリン

العربيه (Arabic)
‏(الاسم) نفط, زيت البترول‏

עברית (Hebrew)
n. - ‮נפט, שמן-אדמה‬


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